Wendy Peia Oakes

Systematic Screenings to Prevent the Development of Learning and Behavior Problems: Considerations for Practitioners, Researchers, and Policy Makers

In this article, we discuss the importance of systematic screenings to monitor K—12 students’ behavioral and academic performance, with an emphasis on the need to identify and support students with emotional and behavioral disorders before they develop significant learning and behavior problems requiring special education services under the category of emotional disturbances. We emphasize the importance of conducting systematic screenings across the K—12 grade span within the context of comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered models of prevention. We provide brief descriptions of some of the current tools available to assess academic and behavioral performance patterns over time and present a balanced discussion of the benefits and challenges associated with the screening. Specifically, we describe how these measures can be used to (a) assess overall levels of performance within and across the school years and (b) identify students who may require secondary and tertiary levels of prevention beyond primary prevention efforts. We conclude with responsibilities that come with conducting screenings, with specific considerations for practitioners, researchers, and policy makers.

Additional Evidence for the Reliability and Validity of the Student Risk Screening Scale at the High School Level: A Replication and Extension

This study reports findings from a validation study of the Student Risk Screening Scale for use with 9th- through 12th-grade students (N = 1854) attending a rural fringe school. Results indicated high internal consistency, test-retest stability, and inter-rater reliability. Predictive validity was established across two academic years, with Spring Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS) scores differentiating students with low-, moderate-, and high-risk status on office discipline referrals, grade point averages, and course failures during the following academic year. Teacher ratings evaluating students’ performance later in the instructional day were more predictive than teacher ratings evaluating students’ performance earlier in the instructional day. Educational implications, limitations, and future research directions are presented.

A Validation of the Student Risk Screening Scale for Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors: Patterns in Rural and Urban Elementary Schools:

ABSTRACT: We report findings of two studies, one conducted in a rural school district (N = 982) and a second conducted in an urban district (N = 1,079), offering additional evidence of the reliability and validity of a revised instrument, the Student Risk Screening Scale–Internalizing and Externalizing (SRSS-IE), to accurately detect internalizing and externalizing behaviors. The SRSS-IE was modified to include seven additional items characteristic of internalizing behaviors. Items were developed based on information gleaned from current measures and the existing knowledge base as well as teaching experience with students with emotional or behavioral disorders. The original 7 items developed by Drummond (1994) were retained, resulting in a total of 14 items (SRSS-IE14). Scoring procedures remained the same as with the SRSS, with elementary teachers evaluating each student on each item using a 4-point Likert-type scale. In both studies, we examined item-level data, internal consistency, and factor structure. Results supported retention of five of the seven additional items, yielding the SRSS-IE12. In the second study, we explored and established convergent validity of the SRSS-IE12 as well as the two subscales (SRSS-E7, seven original externalizing items, and SRSS-15, five retained internalizing items) with the Systematic Screening for Behavior Disorders (H. M. Walker & Severson, 1992). Limitations and future directions are offered, including how to use information in designing Tier 2 and Tier 3 intervention supports.

Psychometric Properties of the Student Risk Screening Scale: An Effective Tool for Use in Diverse Urban Elementary Schools

The authors examined the psychometric properties of the Student Risk Screening Scale, as used in three ethnically, culturally, and economically diverse urban midwestern elementary schools. The results suggest strong internal consistency (α = .81—.82) and test-retest stability (r = .86). Initial ratings of risk as measured by the Student Risk Screening Scale were statistically significant in predicting year-end office discipline referral rates and springtime oral reading fluency scores. Students with higher levels of risk at the onset of the academic year were likely to end the year with moderately higher rates of office discipline referrals and low to moderately lower oral reading fluency proficiency levels. Limitations and future directions are offered.

Comprehensive, Integrated, Three-Tiered Models of Prevention: Why Does My School—and District—Need an Integrated Approach to Meet Students’ Academic, Behavioral, and Social Needs?

In this introductory article, the authors provide an overview of and rationale for comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered models of prevention—one approach to integrated tiered systems of support. The authors (a) describe core features of comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered models; and (b) discuss associated benefits, emphasizing those for students with and at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. The authors conclude by providing a brief overview of the articles in this special issue, which collectively offer a step-by-step process for designing, implementing, evaluating, and sustaining comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered models in schools and school districts.

Identifying Students for Secondary and Tertiary Prevention Efforts: How Do We Determine Which Students Have Tier 2 and Tier 3 Needs?

In comprehensive, integrated, three-tiered models, it is essential to have a systematic method for identifying students who need supports at Tier 2 or Tier 3. This article provides explicit information on how to use multiple sources of data to determine which students might benefit from these supports. First, the authors provide an overview of how to make an assessment schedule for all schoolwide data. Second, the authors outline how to create a blueprint for Tier 2 and Tier 3 supports in a given school, including a description of the strategy or practice; inclusionary criteria; data to monitor progress; and exit criteria. Last, the authors provide an overview of how to connect students to support and monitor their progress.

Examining Behavioral Risk and Academic Performance for Students Transitioning from Elementary to Middle School.

We studied the transition from elementary to middle school for 74 fifth-grade students. Specifically, we examined how behavioral risk evident in the elementary years, as measured by the Student Risk Screening Scale (SRSS), impacts students transitioning from elementary to middle school. First, we examined how student risk status shifts as students transitioned from elementary to middle school, also exploring whether these shifts in risk were comparable with the shifts in risk occurring within the fifth-grade year. Second, we explored the degree to which these shifts in risk varied as a function of student gender, special education status, and initial behavioral performance. Although gender was not predictive of performance, there was a positive relation between special education status and initial behavioral risk when compared with risk evident during the sixth-grade year. Finally, we determined the extent to which risk at the end of elementary school was associated with academic and behavioral performance during the first year of middle school. Findings suggest a strong relation between grade point average (GPA) and course failures (CFs) with behavioral risk in sixth grade. As expected, there was a statistically significant, positive relation between CFs and sixth-grade SRSS scores and an inverse relation with GPA.

Three-Tiered Models of Prevention: Teacher Efficacy and Burnout

Project Persevere examined teacher efficacy and burnout within Comprehensive, Integrated, Three-tiered (CI3T) models of prevention, as implemented in two middle schools in a southern state. Participating schools completed a year-long training series to design their CI3T plans and were in their first year of implementation as part of regular school practices. Participating teachers completed the Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale 24-item Long Form (TSES; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) and the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI; Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996) at the end of the school year. Teacher self-ratings were examined to describe how teachers in schools with prevention models were faring. Three sets of variables were examined: (a) teacher efficacy and burnout, (b) treatment integrity and social validity ratings of the CI3T model of prevention, and (c) student behavioral risk. Findings indicated both schools implemented the CI3T model with high integrity and teachers rated their plans with high social validity. Limitations and future directions are provided.

Improving the Early Literacy Skills of Students at Risk for Internalizing or Externalizing Behaviors with Limited Reading Skills

Eight first-grade students with either internalizing or externalizing behavioral risk factors participated in a supplemental reading intervention for 30 min per day. The intervention package consisted of three main components: instruction in word recognition, fluency, and appropriate behavior. A multiple-baseline design was employed to assess intervention effectiveness using weekly Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills Oral Reading Fluency probes and monthly Nonsense Word Fluency probes. Results indicated improvements in early literacy skills for all participants, and response to treatment did not vary by behavioral risk type. Both students with externalizing and internalizing behavioral challenges benefited. Social validity ratings were favorable. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

Working within the Context of Three-Tiered Models of Prevention: Using Schoolwide Data to Identify High School Students for Targeted Supports.

This article addressed 3 objectives for assisting the research and teaching communities in developing 3-tiered models of prevention at the high school level. The authors first established the benefit of using systematic behavior screening tools within the context of 3-tiered models to identify and support high school students with academic and behavioral challenges. Second, they offered a structure for linking students demonstrating need with secondary (Tier 2) supports. Third, they provided illustrations of systematic approaches to detect high school students for whom primary prevention efforts were inadequate according to academic and behavioral data. The authors conclude by offering considerations for school psychologists assisting school-site teams with implementing, monitoring, and sustaining these procedures as part of regular school practices.