Wendy Y. Chen

Assessment and Valuation of the Ecosystem Services Provided by Urban Forests

Urban forests, composed of trees and other vegetation, are integral parts of urban ecosystems. Whether planted intentionally or left by default, urban forests appeared even in the earliest settlements. In urban areas, the constituent greenery provides a broad range of benefits, including opportunities for residents to have daily contact with nature, and to enjoy attractive landscapes and recreational activities (Grey and Deneke, 1986; Rowntree, 1986; Ulrich, 1986; Dwyer et al., 1992; Miller, 1997; Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; Tyrvainen and Miettinen, 2000). In addition, vegetation in cities moderates microclimate extremes and reduces regional pollution (Botkin and Beveridge, 1997; Whitford et al., 2001). They contribute to an improved quality of urban life in many ways, even though these functions are often taken for granted by the public and some city authorities. The environmental benefits and natural functions provided by urban forests can be interpreted as ecosystem services, which are defined as benefits that the human population can derive, directly or indirectly, from ecosystem functions (Costanza et al., 1997). The urban population must rely mainly on services derived from external ecosystems, such as food and energy. However, the diversified benefits generated by urban forests, which are limited in comparison with the amount of imported ecosystem services, could be more instrumental in solving local environmental problems. They could significantly improve the quality of urban life, and play a paramount role in stabilizing and sustaining urban ecosystems (Daily, 1997; Bolund and Hunhammar, 1999; Jensen et al., 2000). Such ecosystem services, however, are not very tangible and generally not well understood or appreciated. Recent studies have generated a wealth of scientific information on the magnitude of their benefits. A more direct interpretation of these benefits for laypersons could promote their preservation and enhancement. A useful approach is to quantify these natural services, and then follow with a valuation of these nonmarket and noncommodity goods. The results could be translated into the universal language of monetary units, and be compared with alternatives to facilitate decision making related to natural resources or the environment. Valuation is inseparable from the choices and decisions humans have to make about ecosystems (Bingham et al., 1995; Costanza et al., 1997; Barbier et al., 1998; Costanza, 2000). Some studies have attempted to quantify the ecosystem services generated by urban

Foreign direct investment, institutional development, and environmental externalities: Evidence from China

The question of how foreign direct investment (FDI) affects a host countrys natural environment has generated much debate but little consensus. Building on an institution-based theory, this article examines how the institutional development of a host setting affects the degree of FDI-related environmental externalities in China (specifically, industrial sulfur dioxide emissions). With a panel data set of 287 Chinese cities, over the period 2002-2009, this study reveals that FDI in general induces negative environmental externalities. Investments from OECD countries increase sulfur dioxide emissions, whereas FDI from Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan shows no significant effect. Institutional development reduces the impacts of FDI across the board. By focusing on the moderating role of institutions, this study sheds new light on the long-debated relationships among FDI, institutions, and the environments of the host countries.

Leisure Participation Pattern of Residents in a New Chinese City

The leisure sector in Chinese cities has flourished in recent years. Lacking leisure studies could compromise resource supply and management. We explored urban residents’ participation in twenty-five leisure activities in Zhuhai, a newly developed city in south China. Leisure activities were classified into four groups based on consumption venue (intrahome and extrahome) and physical activities (passive and active). A face-to-face questionnaire survey included 850 households in seventy residential precincts chosen by a clustered sampling scheme, generating 598 valid questionnaires. Responses were solicited on participation level on weekdays and holidays, leisure time, leisure companions, leisure barriers, use of urban green spaces, and respondents’ socioeconomic profile. Multiple and logistic regressions were computed. Intrahome activities have higher participation rates than extrahome activities, and passive notably higher than active. The weekday leisure pattern is similar to holiday patterns despite more leisure time. Watching television, chatting with families or friends, and leisure reading are premier intrahome activities. Walking for leisure and shopping are the main extrahome engagements. Intrahome activities are more prominent among urban-based, homebound, passive-oriented, sedentary, and individualistic noninteractive types, with health implications. Middle-aged residents have less leisure time vis-à-vis young adults. Shortage of leisure resources and poor recreation venue management have created critical participation barriers. Residents prefer conveniently located and semiprivate neighborhood gardens embedded within residential developments rather than public sites. Young residents prefer to use urban parks, whereas middle-age and older residents prefer local sites. Cleanliness and other quality attributes are rated as key determinants for visiting green spaces. The results could inform future policies on leisure development in new Chinese cities.

Impact of Perceived Importance of Ecosystem Services and Stated Financial Constraints on Willingness to Pay for Riparian Meadow Restoration in Flanders (Belgium)

The strategic importance of ecosystem service valuation as an operational basis for policy decisions on natural restoration has been increasingly recognized in order to align the provision of ecosystem services with the expectation of human society. The contingent valuation method (CVM) is widely used to quantify various ecosystem services. However, two areas of concern arise: (1) whether people value specific functional ecosystem services and overlook some intrinsic aspects of natural restoration, and (2) whether people understand the temporal dimension of ecosystem services and payment schedules given in the contingent scenarios. Using a peri-urban riparian meadow restoration project in Flanders, Belgium as a case, we explored the impacts of residents’ perceived importance of various ecosystem services and stated financial constraints on their willingness-to-pay for the proposed restoration project employing the CVM. The results indicated that people tended to value all the benefits of riparian ecosystem restoration concurrently, although they accorded different importances to each individual category of ecosystem services. A longer payment scheme can help the respondents to think more about the flow of ecosystem services into future generations. A weak temporal embedding effect can be detected, which might be attributed to respondents’ concern about current financial constraints, rather than financial bindings associated with their income and perceived future financial constraints. This demonstrates the multidimensionality of respondents’ financial concerns in CV. This study sheds light on refining future CV studies, especially with regard to public expectation of ecosystem services and the temporal dimension of ecosystem services and payment schedules.

Urbanization effect on floristic and landscape patterns of green spaces.

Abstract The study explored the effects of intensive urbanization on urban plant diversity and landscape pattern. An inventory of plant species in managed green spaces in the nine urban districts of Guangzhou (south China) with varied development history was conducted. The relationships among species richness, diversity and urban development were analysed by community ecology attributes, cluster analysis, growth-form differentiation and district fidelity indices, and statistical tests. The 1055 vascular species were dominated by a small number of common evergreen species, accompanied by many rare species. By species richness, tree was the dominant growth form, followed by herb and shrub. Species richness and diversity were slightly below urban-fringe secondary forests. Old and young districts offered disparate conditions for species enrichment to establish urban landscape patterns with divergent floristic and growth-form assemblages. Urban species profile and vegetation landscapes were mainly influenced by planning and management of the urban landscape and changing landscape fashion.

Power or Market? Location Determinants of Multinational Headquarters in China

Multinational corporations (MNCs) have increasingly been establishing regional headquarters in China. However, no study has systematically examined how MNCs make strategic decisions about where to locate Chinese headquarters (CHQs) in this transition economy. The paper makes the first attempt to investigate the issue by focusing on two questions. First, what are the location-specific factors that determine where MNCs locate their CHQs? Second, how do these factors influence making the decision between Beijing and Shanghai, the two largest cities in China? We integrate existing literature and assess the differential roles of (1) path dependency, (2) institutional support, and (3) proximity to superior information. Data were collected through a large-scale survey of MNC CHQs in mainland China. The empirical analysis supports the three-dimensional framework and the central role of proximity to superior information in the decision-making process. The results advance existing understanding of MNC location decisions in China by revealing the unique interplay between power and market in this transition economy, and between Beijing and Shanghai, the two promising cities toward world city status, in particular.

Identifying Societal Preferences for River Restoration in a Densely Populated Urban Environment: Evidence from a Discrete Choice Experiment in Central Brussels

One of the major challenges facing river restoration in densely populated urban areas has been the disparity between the expectations of policy-makers and societal preferences. This study aimed to elicit public preferences and elucidate underlying sources of preference heterogeneity, using the Zenne River in central Brussels, Belgium, as a case study. A discrete choice experiment was administered to a representative sample of the Brussels population. Five attributes were specified, including water quality, ecological status, hydromorphological features of channels, recreational opportunities, and monetary cost. Our econometric analysis based on mixed logit models revealed that overall public would like to have a more natural river (open and naturalized channel, good water quality, and with rich species diversity), while achieving good water quality was the most preferred attribute. Respondents categorized as male, non-Belgian citizen, or not being a member of an environmental organization constituted an inclination to prefer the status quo. Belgian citizens showed a pronounced preference for good biodiversity, and being a member of an environmental organization could moderate the strong preference for good water quality. This study provided insights into the relative attractiveness of key attributes pertaining to river restoration, in general, and served as a useful input to the ongoing discussion concerning the future plan for the Zenne River in Brussels, specifically. Possible implications also exist for other urban river restorations in the rest of Europe, where the Water Framework Directive has become a major impetus for the expansion of freshwater ecosystem restoration from rural and peri-urban areas to densely populated urban areas. Particularly, the cultural heterogeneity of societal preferences should be tested and accounted for to compare the welfare impacts of river restoration and to facilitate benefit transfer, within and between river basins, in the Water Framework Directive implementation.

Urban Nature and Urban Ecosystem Services

Worldwide more and more people live and work in cities, where urban nature and their ecosystem services are the basis for economic development and social wellbeing. Therefore, how to ensure that cities in the present and future can provide a whole range of ecosystem services to meet urban dwellers’ needs become a front and center issue in urban resilience and sustainability on the global agenda. This article presents a literature review that explores our understanding about various natural elements in cities (including urban green and blue spaces) and their diverse ecosystem services and some disservices. While the importance of urban nature and urban ecosystem services has been increasingly recognized, the integration of ecological, social and economic understanding of urban ecosystem services into relevant policy making processes is still at an embryonic stage. Some pertinent challenges are highlighted for the theorization and governance of urban ecosystem services.