Werner Balderer

Ground Water Chemistry Changes before Major Earthquakes and Possible Effects on Animals

Prior to major earthquakes many changes in the environment have been documented. Though often subtle and fleeting, these changes are noticeable at the land surface, in water, in the air, and in the ionosphere. Key to understanding these diverse pre-earthquake phenomena has been the discovery that, when tectonic stresses build up in the Earth’s crust, highly mobile electronic charge carriers are activated. These charge carriers are defect electrons on the oxygen anion sublattice of silicate minerals, known as positive holes, chemically equivalent to O− in a matrix of O2−. They are remarkable inasmuch as they can flow out of the stressed rock volume and spread into the surrounding unstressed rocks. Travelling fast and far the positive holes cause a range of follow-on reactions when they arrive at the Earth’s surface, where they cause air ionization, injecting massive amounts of primarily positive air ions into the lower atmosphere. When they arrive at the rock-water interface, they act as •O radicals, oxidizing water to hydrogen peroxide. Other reactions at the rock-water interface include the oxidation or partial oxidation of dissolved organic compounds, leading to changes of their fluorescence spectra. Some compounds thus formed may be irritants or toxins to certain species of animals. Common toads, Bufo bufo, were observed to exhibit a highly unusual behavior prior to a M6.3 earthquake that hit L’Aquila, Italy, on April 06, 2009: a few days before the seismic event the toads suddenly disappeared from their breeding site in a small lake about 75 km from the epicenter and did not return until after the aftershock series. In this paper we discuss potential changes in groundwater chemistry prior to seismic events and their possible effects on animals.

Origin of Thermal Waters in Budapest Based on Chemical and Isotope Investigations Including Chlorine-36

Budapest is a major spa center with numerous thermal baths that are open to the public. Thermal spas in Budapest were first developed by the Romans and followed by the Turks, present spas were built mainly in the 19th and 20th centuries. At the city of Budapest the Danube River flows along a geological fault which separates the Buda Hills from the Great Plain. Within this fault zone in the vicinity of the Danube more than 100 thermal springs are arising yielding totally about 40,000 m3 per day of warm mineral water. In this study the results of thermal, chemical and isotope analyses (including tritium and chlorine-36) of 12 thermal springs and wells are presented. These results are interpreted with respect to the origin and recharge conditions of the investigated thermal waters.

Lab-evaluation of applicability selected hydrogeological tracers in physical/chemical conditions

In this research, the effects of a number of physical/chemical factors such as pH, sunlight, temperature, and salinity, as well as adsorption in porous media on the applicability of selected groundwater tracers are evaluated. Tracers from different categories as fluorescent dye tracers (uranine, eosin, and rhodamine B), chemical salts (NaCl and KCl), and non-fluorescent dye tracer (KMnO4) have been tested. This research was conducted in the laboratory. The results show that uranine losses its florescence in acid environments, while in alkaline conditions its florescence increases. The results also show that due to photochemical decay, eosin is the most unstable tracer if subjected to sunlight. KMnO4 turns to brown under sunlight and high temperature conditions, and may lose its usefulness as a tracer. Results also confirm that the fluorescence intensity of rhodamine B decreases with increasing temperature and/or salinity. Uranine and eosin have high resistance against high temperature and salinity conditions. An important factor in ground water tracing is adsorption of tracer in porous media environment. Our research show that rhodamine B would easily adsorb to fine grain porous media, while uranine and eosin are of high resistance against adsorption; KMnO4 is adsorbed easily too.

Effects of seismic activity on the fluorescence signal of groundwater

BackgroundPeroxy defects in minerals from stressed igneous and high grade metamorphic rocks release charge carriers which are highly mobile. This process is proposed as the main cause of observed pre-seismic phenomena such as infrared emission on the surface, positive air ionization or a change of ground water chemistry. The primary changes in groundwater chemistry is caused through an increase in oxidation on the rock-water-boundary. This can be detected by observing a rise in fluorescence due to an O. addition on an aromatic ring which can change a substance. For example a terephthalate can change from a non-fluorescent to a partially fluorescent compound due to O. additions.ResultsIn this paper we present results of groundwater fluorescence monitoring over a period of approximately three months. We observe distinct wavelengths with an on-line flow-through fluorometer in two different thermal springs in the northern part of Switzerland. We will also show that fluorescent intensities fluctuate widely and display clear increases and sharp rapid drops. During the measuring period many smaller earthquakes with a magnitude between 1.0 and 2.6 occurred close to the measuring stations but a strong earthquake was absent. Nevertheless, an increase in fluorescent intensity was measured in both springs prior to a magnitude 2.2 earthquake. After this seismic event the fluorescent intensities suddenly decreased.ConclusionsThe presented results comply with the anticipated theoretical considerations.

Origin, Anthropogenic and Climate Influences on the Occurrences of Saline Groundwater at the City of Cairo, Egypt Deduced by Chemical Parameters of the Water Composition

Three old springs in the southeastern part at the border of Cairo City, named Ain Al Sira, Khayalat Al Shorta and Abo El Soud, used to be the origin of three natural ponds. Since the removal of one of these natural ponds (Abo El Soud) about three decades ago, by filling it with stones and recycled building material, an ongoing rise of the water level of the two remaining lakes or ponds has been observed. The water surface rise of the two ponds is still continuing and is actually even flooding nearby roads and cemeteries. The origin of the groundwater is from outflows of the outcropping Tertiary rocks according to the main chemical composition of Pond Nr. 1 Khayalat Al Shorta, as also outflows of the water of the Eocene formation outcrop along the Eastern bank of the Nile valley according to the main chemical composition of Pond Nr. 2 Ain Al Sira. A remediation of the present situation would most probably only be possible by restoring the pools to their original extent and maintaining the water level by controlled drainage of the groundwater overflow, by installing a drainage system for lowering the groundwater level with small pumping stations scattered throughout the area of high groundwater levels along the main streets in the direction of the Nile (which would possibly replace the disappeared historical channel system).

Enhanced Fluoride in Groundwater in Eastern Anatolia: Effects, Origin and Possibilities for Remediation

In the spring of 2002 and summer of 2003 two research surveys were carried out in eastern Anatolia. The hydrogeological/hydrochemical investigations undertaken in the spring of 2002 revealed a dramatic situation of the water supply in several villages in the Dogubeyazit area, manifesting fluoride concentrations largely above the 1 ppm WHO limit of fluoride concentration in drinking water. The severity of the resulting health problems was confirmed by a dental and general health survey in three villages where the available water supply contained 6–8 ppm of fluoride. Consequently, this hydrogeological study will attempt to contribute to the alleviation of this problem by the following: (i) to survey the existing situation with regards to the current use of groundwater provided by the existing springs, and boreholes, (ii) to propose a new distribution network of groundwater resources with low fluoride concentration in order to lower its intake thus improving health and quality of life of the affected population.