Werner Botha

English in China's universities today

According to Bolton (2013), Chinese university students are invariably multilingual, not only acquiring English at school, but increasingly outside of their formal curricula, through the Internet, music, computer games, movies, and television series. Indeed, many of these students are also highly mobile, and in most cases migrate throughout Greater China (and abroad) in order to pursue higher education degrees. Bolton (2012, 2013) also points out that current theorizing about English in Greater China needs to take into account what he calls ‘the language worlds’ of these young people, especially with regard to how they use various languages in various aspects of their lives, increasingly sampling different ‘worlds’, both ‘physical’ as well as ‘imaginary’ (see also Blommaert, 2010). Studies of migration and mobility within Greater China – particularly with regard to how this relates to the use of English in the context of local languages and language varieties – have received very little attention. This paper aims to fill this gap by providing a sociolinguistic account of the contemporary use of English in Chinas higher education, by specifically reporting on a recent large-scale sociolinguistic study that was carried out in Macau and Guangzhou, in southern China. The study reported on in this paper captures the increasing use of English as a medium (or additional medium) of instruction in two universities at these locations. The study also reveals how English is used in the personal lives of ordinary Chinese students.

English and international students in China today

China has since 2000 started marketing itself as a hub for international education, and there has been a push by the government to attract a large number of foreign students to the countrys universities. Sharma (2011) reported that there were around 260,000 foreign students studying in Chinas universities, and that the aim of the Ministry of Education was to attract around 500,000 foreign students by 2020. However, as China is a so-called ‘emerging destination’ for foreign students, perhaps not surprisingly, the vast majority - around two-thirds - of its foreign student population is currently from the Asia region (Study in China, 2012). Although the largest number of foreign students in China study Chinese language programs, an increasing number are attracted by such programs as engineering and medicine. These courses are also being promoted as English-medium programs, with whole degree programs offered from undergraduate to postgraduate levels in English. Little research has been carried out on how these programs are being conducted, the reception of these programs by foreign students in China, and the impact this is having on Chinas universities. The attraction of international students to Chinas higher education institutions would no doubt alter the dynamics of language use on these university campuses. This article reports on the reception and use of English by foreign university students in one such international degree program: international undergraduate students studying for a degree in Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) in the School of Medicine of one of Chinas leading universities. This case study provides an example of how English-medium instruction programs are currently being used to attract foreign students to Chinas universities, partly in order for these universities to promote themselves as ‘international’ institutions (see also Botha, 2014; and Bolton and Botha, 2015).

English-medium instruction in Singapore higher education: policy, realities and challenges

ABSTRACT Within the Asian region, Singapore has long been seen as a leader within the field of higher education, with an unmatched record of success in implementing English-medium instruction (EMI) at all levels of education, including colleges and universities. This present study reports on a large-scale survey carried out at one of Singapore’s major universities on the use of English as a teaching medium at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. Key findings from the survey foreground the difficulties and needs of students coping with EMI instruction at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. One important result here highlights the specific problems of overseas postgraduate students (including many from mainland China), a finding that resonates with the sociolinguistics of higher education in many other international universities in an era of global education.

English as a Medium of Instruction in Singapore Higher Education

The opening sections of this chapter trace the development of English-medium instruction (EMI) in higher education from the late 1940s and the foundation of the University of Malaya, through to the post-colonial era following independence in 1965 and Singapore’s current era of a globally-competitive, knowledge-based economy. One important argument in this context is that the post-independence policy of promoting English within education had strong roots in the colonial language policies of the 1950s. Today, Singapore has six tertiary institutions, all of which maintain a uniform policy of using English as the sole medium of instruction. The later sections of the chapter focus on the contemporary context of higher education, where scientific, technological, and vocational education has been promoted to serve the needs of a knowledge-based economy that has been developed to be highly competitive on the world stage. Despite the official policy on EMI throughout education in Singapore, from a sociolinguistic perspective it is also important to consider the wider multilingual ecology of the Singapore society, and the often complex multilingual worlds of university students, which are characterised by code-switching from more formal registers of English in the classroom to the use of Colloquial Singapore English, Malay, Mandarin and Indian languages in the corridors and cafeterias of universities throughout Singapore.

The use of English in the social network of a student in South China

Many Chinese university students are bilingual or multilingual, increasingly switching between various Chinese language varieties and the English language (Bolton, 2013; Botha, 2014, Bolton & Botha, 2015). Bolton and Botha (2015) reported that undergraduate students at a national university in China used English for a range of social activities including ‘reading’, ‘Internet searches’, ‘online socialising’ and ‘socializing with friends’, among others. There is a need to investigate the extent to which these students actually use English in these contexts, especially in the productive use of the English language in their social lives. In examining such practices, the following questions are addressed in this article: (i) How is the English language used in the personal life of a student in Southern China; (ii) What are some of the functions of spoken and written English-Chinese code-mixing and switching between members of this students social network; and (iii) What kind of social information is conveyed through the use of English in this students social network? In order to examine the sociolinguistic reality of language use by these students, this article explores some of the social dynamics underlying the emerging use of English-Chinese code-switching and mixing within a particular social network: that of ‘Natalie’, a Chinese university student who speaks Putonghua (Mandarin, as a first language) and members within her social network, conversing within a range of modalities. This case study focuses in particular on the use of English-Chinese code-switching and mixing practices, and the extent to which these communicative practices are shaped by various social factors, ranging from the status of English as a perceived ‘international’ language, to aspects of stance and the affective quality of the relationships between members in this social network, to the intertextual nature of many of the linguistic instances to these practices.

Variation in Macau Cantonese: the case of initial and final segments

Abstract This article considers how meaningful social differences are conveyed through the use of initial and final segments in Macau Cantonese. The research presented in this article provides a sociolinguistic account of the use of initial and final segments in Macau Cantonese, and specifically illustrates how social meanings of initials and finals are variable, and do not only subsume explanations that derive from internal linguistic constraint categories. This study employed an eclectic and multidimensional sociolinguistic approach that combines sociolinguistic survey methods, social network theory and constructionist approaches, with a view to accounting for the dynamics underlying initial and final segment variation in Macau Cantonese. Results of this study indicate that social constraints such as conversation topic, the affective relations between interlocutors, and other social factors such as gender and social class possibly impinge on the distribution and use of initials and finals in Macau Cantonese.