Werner J. Kovacs

Metabolic control of adult neural stem cell activity by Fasn-dependent lipogenesis

Mechanisms controlling the proliferative activity of neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPCs) have a pivotal role to ensure life-long neurogenesis in the mammalian brain. How metabolic programs are coupled with NSPC activity remains unknown. Here we show that fatty acid synthase (Fasn), the key enzyme of de novo lipogenesis, is highly active in adult NSPCs and that conditional deletion of Fasn in mouse NSPCs impairs adult neurogenesis. The rate of de novo lipid synthesis and subsequent proliferation of NSPCs is regulated by Spot14, a gene previously implicated in lipid metabolism, that we found to be selectively expressed in low proliferating adult NSPCs. Spot14 reduces the availability of malonyl-CoA, which is an essential substrate for Fasn to fuel lipogenesis. Thus, we identify here a functional coupling between the regulation of lipid metabolism and adult NSPC proliferation.

Central role of peroxisomes in isoprenoid biosynthesis.

Peroxisomes contain enzymes catalyzing a number of indispensable metabolic functions mainly related to lipid metabolism. The importance of peroxisomes in man is stressed by the existence of genetic disorders in which the biogenesis of the organelle is defective, leading to complex developmental and metabolic phenotypes. The purpose of this review is to emphasize some of the recent findings related to the localization of cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes in peroxisomes and to discuss the impairment of cholesterol biosynthesis in peroxisomal deficiency diseases.

Localization of the pre-squalene segment of the isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway in mammalian peroxisomes

Previous studies have indicated that the early steps in the isoprenoid/cholesterol biosynthetic pathway occur in peroxisomes. However, the role of peroxisomes in cholesterol biosynthesis has recently been questioned in several reports concluding that three of the peroxisomal cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes, namely mevalonate kinase, phosphomevalonate kinase, and mevalonate diphosphate decarboxylase, do not localize to peroxisomes in human cells even though they contain consensus peroxisomal targeting signals. We re-investigated the subcellular localization of the cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes of the pre-squalene segment in human cells by using new stable isotopic techniques and data computations with isotopomer spectral analysis, in combination with immunofluorescence and cell permeabilization techniques. Our present findings clearly show and confirm previous studies that the pre-squalene segment of the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway is localized to peroxisomes. In addition, our data are consistent with the hypothesis that acetyl-CoA derived from peroxisomal β-oxidation of very long-chain fatty acids and medium-chain dicarboxylic acids is preferentially channeled to cholesterol synthesis inside the peroxisomes without mixing with the cytosolic acetyl-CoA pool.

Hif-2α Promotes Degradation of Mammalian Peroxisomes by Selective Autophagy

Peroxisomes play a central role in lipid metabolism, and their function depends on molecular oxygen. Low oxygen tension or von Hippel-Lindau (Vhl) tumor suppressor loss is known to stabilize hypoxia-inducible factors alpha (Hif-1α and Hif-2α) to mediate adaptive responses, but it remains unknown if peroxisome homeostasis and metabolism are interconnected with Hif-α signaling. By studying liver-specific Vhl, Vhl/Hif1α, and Vhl/Hif2α knockout mice, we demonstrate a regulatory function of Hif-2α signaling on peroxisomes. Hif-2α activation augments peroxisome turnover by selective autophagy (pexophagy) and thereby changes lipid composition reminiscent of peroxisomal disorders. The autophagy receptor Nbr1 localizes to peroxisomes and is likewise degraded by Hif-2α-mediated pexophagy. Furthermore, we demonstrate that peroxisome abundance is reduced in VHL-deficient human clear cell renal cell carcinomas with high HIF-2α levels. These results establish Hif-2α as a negative regulator of peroxisome abundance and metabolism and suggest a mechanism by which cells attune peroxisomal function with oxygen availability.

Disturbed cholesterol homeostasis in a peroxisome-deficient PEX2 knockout mouse model.

ABSTRACT We evaluated the major pathways of cholesterol regulation in the peroxisome-deficient PEX2−/− mouse, a model for Zellweger syndrome. Zellweger syndrome is a lethal inherited disorder characterized by severe defects in peroxisome biogenesis and peroxisomal protein import. Compared with wild-type mice, PEX2 −/− mice have decreased total and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in plasma. Hepatic expression of the SREBP-2 gene is increased 2.5-fold in PEX2 −/− mice and is associated with increased activities and increased protein and expression levels of SREBP-2-regulated cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes. However, the upregulated cholesterogenic enzymes appear to function with altered efficiency, associated with the loss of peroxisomal compartmentalization. The rate of cholesterol biosynthesis in 7- to 9-day-old PEX2 −/− mice is markedly increased in most tissues, except in the brain and kidneys, where it is reduced. While the cholesterol content of most tissues is normal in PEX2 −/− mice, in the knockout mouse liver it is decreased by 40% relative to that in control mice. The classic pathway of bile acid biosynthesis is downregulated in PEX2 −/− mice. However, expression of CYP27A1, the rate-determining enzyme in the alternate pathway of bile acid synthesis, is upregulated threefold in the PEX2 −/− mouse liver. The expression of hepatic ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters (ABCA1 and ABCG1) involved in cholesterol efflux is not affected in PEX2 −/− mice. These data illustrate the diversity in cholesterol regulatory responses among different organs in postnatal peroxisome-deficient mice and demonstrate that peroxisomes are critical for maintaining cholesterol homeostasis in the neonatal mouse.

Cholesterol biosynthesis and ER stress in peroxisome deficiency

Cholesterol biosynthesis is a multi-step process involving more than 20 enzymes in several subcellular compartments. The pre-squalene segment of the cholesterol/isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway is localized in peroxisomes. This review intends to highlight recent findings illustrating the important role peroxisomes play in cholesterol biosynthesis and maintenance of cholesterol homeostasis. Disruption of the Pex2 gene leads to peroxisome deficiency and widespread metabolic dysfunction. The Pex2(-/-) mouse model for Zellweger syndrome enabled us to evaluate the role of peroxisomes in cholesterol biosynthesis. These studies have shown that Pex2(-/-) mice exhibit low levels of cholesterol in plasma and liver. Pex2(-/-) mice were unable to maintain normal cholesterol homeostasis despite activation of SREBP-2, the master transcriptional regulator of cholesterol biosynthesis, and increased protein levels and activities of cholesterol biosynthetic enzymes. The SREBP-2 pathway remained activated even after normalization of hepatic cholesterol levels in response to bile acid feeding as well as in extrahepatic tissues and the liver of neonatal and longer surviving Pex2 mutants, where cholesterol levels were normal. Several studies have shown that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress can dysregulate lipid metabolism via SREBP activation independently of intracellular cholesterol concentration. We demonstrated that peroxisome deficiency activates endoplasmic reticulum stress pathways in Pex2(-/-) mice, especially the integrated stress response mediated by PERK and ATF4 signaling, and thereby leads to dysregulation of the SREBP-2 pathway. Our findings suggest that functional peroxisomes are necessary to prevent chronic ER stress and dysregulation of the endogenous sterol response pathway. The constitutive activation of ER stress pathways might contribute to organ pathology and metabolic dysfunction in peroxisomal disorder patients.

Hypoxia signaling pathways: modulators of oxygen-related organelles

Oxygen (O2) is an essential substrate in cellular metabolism, bioenergetics, and signaling and as such linked to the survival and normal function of all metazoans. Low O2 tension (hypoxia) is a fundamental feature of physiological processes as well as pathophysiological conditions such as cancer and ischemic diseases. Central to the molecular mechanisms underlying O2 homeostasis are the hypoxia-inducible factors-1 and -2 alpha (HIF-1α and EPAS1/HIF-2α) that function as master regulators of the adaptive response to hypoxia. HIF-induced genes promote characteristic tumor behaviors, including angiogenesis and metabolic reprogramming. The aim of this review is to critically explore current knowledge of how HIF-α signaling regulates the abundance and function of major O2-consuming organelles. Abundant evidence suggests key roles for HIF-1α in the regulation of mitochondrial homeostasis. An essential adaptation to sustained hypoxia is repression of mitochondrial respiration and induction of glycolysis. HIF-1α activates several genes that trigger mitophagy and represses regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis. Several lines of evidence point to a strong relationship between hypoxia, the accumulation of misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum, and activation of the unfolded protein response. Surprisingly, although peroxisomes depend highly on molecular O2 for their function, there has been no evidence linking HIF signaling to peroxisomes. We discuss our recent findings that establish HIF-2α as a negative regulator of peroxisome abundance and suggest a mechanism by which cells attune peroxisomal function with O2 availability. HIF-2α activation augments peroxisome turnover by pexophagy and thereby changes lipid composition reminiscent of peroxisomal disorders. We discuss potential mechanisms by which HIF-2α might trigger pexophagy and place special emphasis on the potential pathological implications of HIF-2α-mediated pexophagy for human health.

Peroxisome Deficiency Causes a Complex Phenotype because of Hepatic SREBP/Insig Dysregulation Associated with Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress

Regulation of hepatic cholesterol biosynthesis, lipogenesis, and insulin signaling intersect at the transcriptional level by control of SREBP and Insig genes. We previously demonstrated that peroxisome-deficient PEX2-/- mice activate SREBP-2 pathways but are unable to maintain normal cholesterol homeostasis. In this study, we demonstrate that oral bile acid treatment normalized hepatic and plasma cholesterol levels and hepatic cholesterol synthesis in early postnatal PEX2 mutants, but SREBP-2 and its target gene expressions remained increased. SREBP-2 pathway induction was also observed in neonatal and longer surviving PEX2 mutants, where hepatic cholesterol levels were normal. Abnormal expression patterns for SREBP-1c and Insig-2a, and novel regulation of Insig-2b, further demonstrate that peroxisome deficiency widely affects the regulation of related metabolic pathways. We have provided the first demonstration that peroxisome deficiency activates hepatic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathways, especially the integrated stress response mediated by PERK and ATF4 signaling. Our studies suggest a mechanism whereby ER stress leads to dysregulation of the endogenous sterol response mechanism and concordantly activates oxidative stress pathways. Several metabolic derangements in peroxisome-deficient PEX2-/- liver are likely to trigger ER stress, including perturbed flux of mevalonate metabolites, altered bile acid homeostasis, changes in fatty acid levels and composition, and oxidative stress.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress impairs cholesterol efflux and synthesis in hepatic cells

Metabolic disorders such as type 2 diabetes cause hepatic endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, which affects neutral lipid metabolism. However, the role of ER stress in cholesterol metabolism is incompletely understood. Here, we show that induction of acute ER stress in human hepatic HepG2 cells reduced ABCA1 expression and caused ABCA1 redistribution to tubular perinuclear compartments. Consequently, cholesterol efflux to apoA-I, a key step in nascent HDL formation, was diminished by 80%. Besides ABCA1, endogenous apoA-I expression was reduced upon ER stress induction, which contributed to reduced cholesterol efflux. Liver X receptor, a key regulator of ABCA1 in peripheral cells, was not involved in this process. Despite reduced cholesterol efflux, cellular cholesterol levels remained unchanged during ER stress. This was due to impaired de novo cholesterol synthesis by reduction of HMG-CoA reductase activity by 70%, although sterol response element-binding protein-2 activity was induced. In mice, ER stress induction led to a marked reduction of hepatic ABCA1 expression. However, HDL cholesterol levels were unaltered, presumably because of scavenger receptor class B, type I downregulation under ER stress. Taken together, our data suggest that ER stress in metabolic disorders reduces HDL biogenesis due to impaired hepatic ABCA1 function.

Atherogenic diet leads to posttranslational down-regulation of murine hepatocyte SR-BI expression

The scavenger receptor class B, type I (SR-BI) mediates selective cholesteryl ester uptake by the liver and thereby exerts a systemic anti-atherogenic effect. It is unknown, however, whether exogenous cholesterol contributes to the regulation of hepatic SR-BI expression. Atherosclerosis resistant SJL and susceptible C57Bl/6 mice were challenged with atherogenic diets that lead to an increase of both plasma and liver cholesterol. The increase of cholesterol was accompanied by a marked posttranslational down-regulation of liver SR-BI expression. On average, we observed a threefold decrease of SR-BI protein while mRNA levels were slightly increased in both strains. Mice with transgenic over-expression of the sterol regulatory element binding proteins (SREBPs) were used as a model that displays endogenously increased liver cholesterol concentrations. In SREBP-1a and -1c transgenic mice on normal chow, SR-BI was transcriptionally down-regulated. When fed the atherogenic diet, the posttranslational SR-BI regulation was still functional on this background. Down-regulation of SR-BI did not alter the hepatocyte surface expression pattern, but was accompanied by a decrease of PDZK1, an adaptor protein recently identified to control SR-BI protein expression levels in the liver and intestine. Taken together, a diet-induced increase of plasma and hepatic cholesterol levels leads to a posttranscriptional down-regulation of SR-BI in mouse liver via a mechanism likely involving PDZK1.