Wesley De Boever

Data-fusion of high resolution X-ray CT, SEM and EDS for 3D and pseudo-3D chemical and structural characterization of sandstone

When dealing with the characterization of the structure and composition of natural stones, problems of representativeness and choice of analysis technique almost always occur. Since feature-sizes are typically spread over the nanometer to centimeter range, there is never one single technique that allows a rapid and complete characterization. Over the last few decades, high resolution X-ray CT (μ-CT) has become an invaluable tool for the 3D characterization of many materials, including natural stones. This technique has many important advantages, but there are also some limitations, including a tradeoff between resolution and sample size and a lack of chemical information. For geologists, this chemical information is of importance for the determination of minerals inside samples. We suggest a workflow for the complete chemical and structural characterization of a representative volume of a heterogeneous geological material. This workflow consists of combining information derived from CT scans at different spatial resolutions with information from scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.

Laminar gypsum crust on lede stone: microspatial characterization and laboratory acid weathering

Gypsum crusts are typical decay forms on limestone in polluted urban environments. Their origin and relation to the stone facies have been thoroughly investigated in the past three decades. Here, we present the combined use of novel techniques for a microspatial structural, chemical and mechanical characterization of a laminar black gypsum crust on a sandy limestone. These techniques include i.a. X-ray computed microtomography, X-ray Fluorescence micromapping, permeability mapping and the scratch test. They reveal the typical architecture of a laminar gypsum crust, with an outer opaque layer, a subsurface gypsum crystallization layer and a deeper cracked zone passing irregularly into the sound stone. Gypsum crystallization is mostly restricted to an irregular outer zone with an average thickness of 500µm, while cracks are found deeper within the rock. These cracks decrease the rock strength to more than 27.5mm below the surface. Because of their surface parallel orientation and thickness of >10-100µm, they create the potential for surface scaling. This is shown by a laboratory acid test where the crack network extensively developed due to further exposure to an SO2 environment. The use of novel techniques opens potential for the study of different decay forms and can be used for stone diagnosis with regards to conservation studies.

Investigating the relative permeability behavior of microporosity-rich carbonates and tight sandstones with multiscale pore network models

The relative permeability behavior of rocks with wide ranges of pore sizes is in many cases still poorly understood, and is difficult to model at the pore scale. In this work, we investigate the capillary pressure and relative permeability behavior of three outcrop carbonates and two tight reservoir sandstones with wide, multi-modal pore size distributions. To examine how the drainage and imbibition properties of these complex rock types are influenced by the connectivity of macropores to each other and to zones with unresolved small-scale porosity, we apply a previously presented micro-computed-tomography-based multi-scale pore network model Bultreys et al. [2015b, 2016b] to these samples. The sensitivity to the properties of the small-scale porosity is studied by performing simulations with different artificial sphere-packing-based networks as a proxy for these pores. Finally, the mixed-wet water flooding behavior of the samples is investigated, assuming different wettability distributions for the micro-and macroporosity. While this work is not an attempt to perform predictive modeling, it seeks to qualitatively explain the behavior of the investigated samples and illustrates some of the most recent developments in multi-scale pore network modeling.

Petrographic characterization to build an accurate rock model using micro-CT: Case study on low-permeable to tight turbidite sandstone from Eocene Shahejie Formation

Pore scale flow simulations heavily depend on petrographic characterizing and modeling of reservoir rocks. Mineral phase segmentation and pore network modeling are crucial stages in micro-CT based rock modeling. The success of the pore network model (PNM) to predict petrophysical properties relies on image segmentation, image resolution and most importantly nature of rock (homogenous, complex or microporous). The pore network modeling has experienced extensive research and development during last decade, however the application of these models to a variety of naturally heterogenous reservoir rock is still a challenge. In this paper, four samples from a low permeable to tight sandstone reservoir were used to characterize their petrographic and petrophysical properties using high-resolution micro-CT imaging. The phase segmentation analysis from micro-CT images shows that 5-6% microporous regions are present in kaolinite rich sandstone (E3 and E4), while 1.7-1.8% are present in illite rich sandstone (E1 and E2). The pore system percolates without micropores in E1 and E2 while it does not percolate without micropores in E3 and E4. In E1 and E2, total MICP porosity is equal to the volume percent of macrospores determined from micro-CT images, which indicate that the macropores are well connected and microspores do not play any role in non-wetting fluid (mercury) displacement process. Whereas in E3 and E4 sandstones, the volume percent of micropores is far less (almost 50%) than the total MICP porosity which means that almost half of the pore space was not detected by the micro-CT scan. PNM behaved well in E1 and E2 where better agreement exists in PNM and MICP measurements. While E3 and E4 exhibit multiscale pore space which cannot be addressed with single scale PNM method, a multiscale approach is needed to characterize such complex rocks. This study provides helpful insights towards the application of existing micro-CT based petrographic characterization methodology to naturally complex petroleum reservoir rocks.

Comparison between traditional laboratory tests, permeability measurements and CT-based fluid flow modelling for cultural heritage applications

In this paper, we examine the possibility to use on-site permeability measurements for cultural heritage applications as an alternative for traditional laboratory tests such as determination of the capillary absorption coefficient. These on-site measurements, performed with a portable air permeameter, were correlated with the pore network properties of eight sandstones and one granular limestone that are discussed in this paper. The network properties of the 9 materials tested in this study were obtained from micro-computed tomography (μCT) and compared to measurements and calculations of permeability and the capillary absorption rate of the stones under investigation, in order to find the correlation between pore network characteristics and fluid management characteristics of these sandstones. Results show a good correlation between capillary absorption, permeability and network properties, opening the possibility of using on-site permeability measurements as a standard method in cultural heritage applications.