William C. Work

Resilient children, psychological wellness, and primary prevention

The concept of heightened resilience or invulnerability in young profoundly stressed children is developed in terms of its implications for a psychology of wellness and for primary prevention in mental health. Relevant literature is reviewed, a skeletal model for studying resilience is outlined, and needed research directions are considered. The latter include expansion of the constructs nomological definitional net, inquiry into the antecedents and determinants of resilience, and the application of such generative information to frame preventive interventions for young, profoundly stressed children.

Caregiving and developmental factors differentiating young at-risk urban children showing resilient versus stress-affected outcomes: a replication and extension.

This study tested hypotheses from an organizational-developmental model for childhood resilience. In this model resilience reflects a childs mastery of age-salient objectives, in the face of substantial adversity, by drawing on internal and external resources that enhance processes of adaptation specific to each developmental stage. Interviews were conducted with parents of 122 7- to 9-year-old urban children exposed to multiple risk factors, 69 classified as resilient and 53 as maladjusted. Consistent with predictions generated by the model: (1) characteristics of a childs caregiving system and early development differentiated children with resilient and stress-affected adaptations; and (2) variables reflecting emotionally responsive, competent parenting were direct, proximal predictors of resilient status and mediators of other caregiver resources such as education, mental health, and relational history. Identified predictors of resilient status, including competent parenting and caregiver psychosocial resources, largely replicated findings from a prior study with sociodemographically comparable 9- to 12-year-old children.

The role of children's future expectations in self-system functioning and adjustment to life stress: A prospective study of urban at-risk children

Study I examined relationships between an interview measure of childrens future expectations and variables reflecting self-system functioning with 136 9–11-year-old urban children exposed to high psychosocial stress. As expected, future expectations related to affect regulation, self-representations, and school adjustment. Study II, done with a subsample of the original group, showed that early positive future expectations predicted enhanced socioemotional adjustment in school and a more internal locus of control 2½–3½ years later and acted as a protective factor in reducing the negative effects of high stress on self-rated competence. These findings: (a) are consistent with prior data showing positive expectations to be characteristic of resilient children; (b) suggest that early positive future expectations influence later adjustment; and (c) underscore the role children have in actively structuring their environments and, thus, influencing their development. The heuristic value of the construct of self for future studies of resilience is suggested, and implications for preventive interventions are considered.

Developmental and family milieu correlates of resilience in urban children who have experienced major life stress

Reports findings from interviews with parents of demographically-comparable groups of highly-stressed urban children with stress-resilient (SR) and stress-affected (SA) outcomes at ages 10-12. SR and SA children were compared on family milieu and child development variables assessed within a developmental framework. Compared to SAs, parents of SRs scored higher on variables reflecting parent perceptions of a nurturant caregiver-child relationship and self-views as effective caregivers, in the context of positive discipline practices, a childs positive early temperament, and support for primary caregivers. A discriminant function analysis identified seven variables that optimally differentiated the groups and correctly classified 86% of the Ss as SR or SA.

Interviews with Children Who Experienced Major Life Stress: Family and Child Attributes that Predict Resilient Outcomes

Demographically comparable groups of children exposed to major life-stress, with stress resilient (SR) and stress affected (SA) outcomes at ages 10 to 12, were interviewed to assess perceptions of their caregiving environments, peer relationships, and themselves. SR children compared with SA children reported more: (1) positive relationships with primary caregivers, (2) stable family environments, (3) inductive and consistent family discipline practices, and (4) positive expectations for their futures. SR girls viewed their mothers as more nurturing than did SA girls. Perceptions of fathers, quality of peer relationships, and global self-concept did not differentiate the groups. A discriminant function analysis identified four variables that correctly classified 74% of the subjects as SR or SA. Findings support the view that caregiver-child relationships play a key role in moderating childrens developmental outcomes under conditions of high stress.

School-based prevention for children at risk : the primary mental health project

The Primary Mental Health Project Roots and Wellsprings How PMHP Operates: An X-Ray PMHPs Early Evolution Setting up and Conducting a PMHP PMHP Mini-Programmes: Extending and Refining the Basic Offerings Evaluating the Effectiveness of PMHP Disseminating the PHMP Programme Model The Social Problem-Solving Programme The Children of Divorce Intervention Programme The Study Buddy Programme The Rochester Child Resilience Programme Conclusion: Where From, Where to? Playground Equipment, Materials and Supplies Child Associate Information and PMHP Assessment Instruments.

The Rochester Child Resilience Project: Overview and summary of first year findings

This article describes the Rochester Child Resilience Project (RCRP) and summarizes findings based on its initial year of operation. Among 4th-6th-grade urban children who had experienced significant life stress, convergent sources of evidence about current adjustment identified demographically matched samples of 37 stress-affected (SA) and 40 stress-resilient (SR) children. These two groups were compared on 11 test measures designed to expand the nomological definitional net for the concept of childhood resilience. Additionally, separate in-depth individual interviews were conducted with children and primary caregivers. Both test and interview responses significantly differentiated the groups in the predicted directions. Childrens group status (SR vs. SA) was predictable on the basis of discriminant function analysis involving five test measures, blind ratings done both for the parent and child interviews, and hierarchical regression analyses reflecting major domains of the parent interview.

Stress resilient children in an urban setting

Overviews the Rochester Child Resilience Project, describes its design and measures, and presents preliminary findings. Within a sample of 313 urban 4th–6th graders, convergent sources of evidence identified subsamples of 37 stress affected (SA) and 40 stress resilient (SR) children, all of whom, based on parent report, had experienced ≥4 stressful life events and circumstances (SLE-Cs). The combined SR/SA groups averaged 8.9 SLE-Cs, significantly more than the rest of the sample. Detailed adjustment ratings by current classroom teachers confirmed that SRs were significantly better adjusted than both SAs and a demographically matched low-stress sample. Factor analysis of the stressful events checklist identified 5 factors. Pooled SRs and SAs had higher scores on these factors than the rest of the sample. In direct comparison of the two groups, SAs had higher scores than SRs only on the Family Separation factor.

Test correlates of stress resilience among urban school children

Compares subsamples of 37 highly stressed children with stress affected (SA) outcomes and 40 demographically similar children with stress resilient (SR) outcomes, identified within a larger sample of 4th-6th grade urban youngsters. Comparisons were made on a battery of 11 measures believed on conceptual and empirical grounds to have potential for differentiating the groups, in an effort to expand the nomological definitional net for childhood resilience. SR children judged themselves as significantly better adjusted and more competent than SAs. They had higher self esteem, more empathy, and both a more internal and more realistic sense of control. They reported more effective problem solving skills and more positive coping strategies. A combination of five predictor variables used in a discriminant function analysis correctly classified 84.1% of the sample as SRs or SAs.

A preventive intervention for enhancing resilience among highly stressed urban children.

Describes the development and evaluation of a pilot 12-session, school-based preventive intervention designed to enhance resilience among inner-city children who have experienced major life stress. Thirty-six 4th–6th grade children participated in the intervention in groups of 5–8 co-led by school personnel. The curriculum focussed on understanding feelings in oneself and others, perspective-taking, social problem-solving, dealing with solvable and unsolvable problems, and building self-efficacy and esteem. Pre-post evaluation showed significant improvement among participants on teacher-rated indices of learning problems and task orientation and on child ratings of perceived self-efficacy, realistic control attributions and anxiety. Program limitations and factors that restrict generalization are considered and new directions for program development and research are proposed.