William Cross

Can Stratarchically Organized Parties be Democratic? The Canadian Case

Abstract In this paper we are concerned with the fundamental question of internal party democracy. Must political parties that depend upon a substantial membership inevitably end as oligarchies? Has the emergence of the cartel party, the “public utility” of modern democracies, spelled an end to active citizen‐partisans? To approach this issue we explore the cartel theorists’ suggestion that stratarchical organizational forms might provide parties with a way out of an apparent democratic dead end. The paper considers the logic of such parties and then examines how Canadian parties have been organized around stratarchical principles. The second substantial part of the paper turns to an assessment, in terms of the standards adopted by the Canadian Democratic Audit, of how, and to what extent, these parties might be considered democratic institutions.

Evolving membership strategies in Australian political parties

Like parties elsewhere, the Australian parties have witnessed a decline in membership activism in recent years and some have suggested that near memberless parties may become the norm. Drawing on elite interviews, party documents and examination of recent organisational reforms, we argue that parties continue to need members and view their involvement as essential to achieving their objectives. In response to declining rates of activism parties have begun to experiment with different forms of membership, such as policy branches, and to expand the traditional notion of membership to include ‘supporters’. We show that membership is a flexible concept that is used by parties to fulfil their institutional functions and electoral objectives, and is defined in unique ways in each sphere of activity. We suggest that accounts of party decline relying on formal membership numbers may be inaccurate. 同其他国家的政党一样，澳大利亚的政党近年来也经历了党员参与的滑坡，以至有人认为无党员政党会成为常态。笔者根据对精英的访谈、政党的文献以及对近年组织改革的考察，指出政党还是要有党员的，党员的参与对于实现政党的目标至关重要。针对参与率走低的情况，一些政党开始尝试不同的参与形式，如政策支部，并延展传统的党员概念，把支持者也包括进来。党员是一个灵活的概念，一些政党用它来实现其体制功能和竞选目的，在每一个活动范围内都有独特的定义。根据正式成员人数统计出来的政党参与走低，是不准确的。

Designing candidate selection methods: Exploring diversity in Australian political parties

The processes political parties use to select their candidates for public office constitute a crucial element of political recruitment in representative democracies and provide important insights into how power is distributed within party organisations. In this article, we develop a typology for understanding the diversity of preselection mechanisms in Australias major parties that is based on degrees of influence between the central and local components of the party organisation. The typology in turn reflects preselection rules as public expressions of intra-party power sharing arrangements. We also identify the institutional, strategic and normative factors (including electoral systems, the accommodation of intra-party groups, candidate quality, efficiency and social norms) that influence the choices parties have to make when selecting and implementing a particular system. 政党用以选举候选人出任公职的过程构成了代议制民主国家政治遴选的一个关键因素，并提供了理解政党组织内权力分配的一个重要角度。本文根据中央和地方党组织之间影响的不同程度，提出了一种分类法以理解澳大利亚主要政党预选机制的多样性。这种分类法本身反映了作为表达政党内权力分享安排的预选规则。我们还找到了体制、战略以及规范性因素（包括选举制度、党内不同群体的相互适应、候选人品质、效率、社会规范等等），这些因素会影响政党选择和实施某种制度时的决策。

PARTY PRIMARIES: TOWARDS A DEFINITION AND TYPOLOGY

While primaries were once associated almost exclusively with the United States, similar methods for selecting party leaders and candidates have lately become common in many parliamentary democracies. This considerable expansion of intra-party democracy has resulted in the rising popularity and increased usage of the term ‘primary’ election. However, despite the popularisation of the term, little work has been done to create a clear definition and to identify the range of selection methods that fall under this umbrella. Without conceptual clarity and a common definition, we lack the necessary tools for comparative work. This paper identifies the point at which a participatory selection method can be labelled a party primary. We begin by examining the conceptual muddle concerning primaries and propose a path that allows for clarification of the concept. We then present a definition of primaries focusing on their three main characteristics and conclude by providing a typology of the various types of primaries.

Candidate Selection in Canada Local Autonomy, Centralization, and Competing Democratic Norms

This article examines how political parties choose their candidates in Canada’s decentralized multilevel setting. We examine the selection practices of the leading federal parties, focusing on the formal and informal rules relating to the eligibility and mobilization of voters and candidates, the distribution of power within the party, and representational outcomes. In doing so, we highlight how Canadian parties have approached the trade-off between competing democratic norms as each party attempts to find a delicate balance between grassroots authority and central party involvement. Despite typically being considered a local affair, the selection of candidates is highly influenced by the central party apparatus—both formally and informally. This central party authority, however, often results in considerable tension that erupts in public conflict. We suggest that while centralization may undermine membership participation, grassroots autonomy, and responsiveness, central party involvement may also enhance the democratic values of fairness, representation, and in some instances even participation.

Activism Among Young Party Members: The Case of the Canadian Liberal Party

Abstract This article considers the determinants of youth member activism in political parties. Recent cross‐national studies have established that political parties are suffering a decline in youth membership numbers and that a significant number of members are inactive. We base our analysis here on the argument that in order to fulfill adequately their linkage role between civil society and the state, parties require an ongoing source of active young partisans to replenish an aging membership. Using data collected through a mail survey of 18–25 year old members of the Canadian Liberal party, we are able to identify several factors which are significantly related to degrees of activism among young party members. Our analysis considers socio‐demographic characteristics, paths to party membership, attitudes towards political parties and advocacy groups, and political socialization. Our most important finding is a strong positive relationship between membership in a party organ dedicated to young members and a high degree of party activism.

Research Note: The Influence of Party Candidate Selection Methods on Candidate Diversity

In this research note we test the argument that centralised and exclusive nomination methods result in more diverse lists of candidates than do those organised with a more inclusive, decentralised selectorate. We do so using a database of candidate information compiled for the 2010 and 2013 Australian federal elections and an analysis of the House of Representatives selection rules for every state and territory branch of the Labor and Liberal parties. The Australian parties provide an excellent opportunity to examine this proposition as there is significant diversity in the types of selection methods used, both within and between the major parties. Our findings reveal significant differences between the two parties, even when similar methods of selection are used. We show that methods of preselection where authority is shared between local members and the central party are more likely to select female candidates, but only when this is supported by a willing party culture.