William D. Heffernan

Opening spaces through relocalization: Locating potential resistance in the weaknesses of the global food system

In this paper we explore several themes based on our intertwined research and outreach activities. First, we examine and discuss emerging global food chains that are embedded in strategic alliances, joint ventures and relationships - in short in networks of power. Decisions are being displaced away from multiple actors situated in different localities to globalized decision-making located within a few firms that make up each cluster. While the roots of these phenomena are firmly grounded in long-term historical processes, it is important to document and understand what is emerging at the global level in order to create alternatives. Second, we discuss our outreach work with farmers, consumers and communities in helping them to frame and understand the changes that are taking place in the food and agriculture system. This is exemplified through a case study of the Kansas City Food Circle and its role in generating alternative visions from the consumption side of the food equation. This work is extremely important for challenging the global food system, and also for helping to empower farmers, eaters and communities to create alternatives. We lay out an analytical understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the global system, and the opportunities found in the social, environmental and economic failures of the global system. In conclusion, the work described above rests on the recognition of different forms of agency that are appearing in the food system, agency that is located within the spaces provided by the unsustainable, unjust nature of the global system. We remain cognizant of the incredible networks of power that shape the production and consumption relationships in the food system. However, we remain hopeful that models of emerging alternatives can help relocalize production/consumption relationships in the food system in equitable ways. In other words, in relationships that are personalized and sustainable, and that are embedded in place and community

Consolidation in food retailing and dairy

Discusses the restructuring of the food production, processing and retailing sectors in the USA. Describes different methods of vertical and horizontal integration that have occurred. Goes on to discuss the consolidation of business in retailing in particular. Refers to the relationships that are being formed between the supermarket chains, for example Wal‐Mart and Kroger, and dominant food‐chain clusters. Considers whether or not smaller retail chains and wholesalers should feel threatened by this consolidation. Takes the dairy sector in the USA as a case study in the restructuring of the retailing and processing sectors.

The Tuna-Dolphin Controversy

This study uses the case of the tuna-dolphin controversy to inform discussions in the sociology of agriculture regarding global post-Fordism in general and the new mode of regulation in particular. Global post-Fordism is defined as the global economic restructuring in progress and the associated emergence of transnational corporations (TNCs) and transnational-States. Mode of regulation is the historically specific set of social norms that are institutionalized within civil society—primarily by the State—whose regularity underpins continued accumulation.

Soil erosion and perception of the problem

Abstract Most efforts to reduce soil erosion have included an educational component designed to make farmers aware of their erosion problem. These strategies implicitly assume that once farmers become aware of an erosion problem, they will take appropriate action. It is recognized that various social and economic factors influence the adoption process at a later stage, but their influence on perception of the problem has not been explored. This analysis indicates that perception of a soil erosion problem may be influenced more by social and economic factors than by the actual extent of the problem. Perception of environmental problems, therefore, is based not only on awareness, but also on the ability to do something about the problem. Therefore, structural constraints influence both the adoption of conservation practices and perception of an environmental problem. It is suggested that if an effective soil conservation program is to be developed, we must understand the unique problems, interests, and goals of farmers.

The Global Food System and Nodes of Power

Much attention has been paid to the emergence of a globally integrated food system in recent decades, where a few firms dominate in certain agriculture and food sectors, from inputs for food production to where farmers sell their raw agricultural products, to where consumers shop for groceries. Production centered notions of power, dominant in earlier analyzes of the industrialization of the agri-food system, have been challenged in recent years by the emergence of new actors - actors focused on the demand side of the system, led by the transnationalization of retail. Strategies based on food quality and considerations on their conditions of production unleashed a dynamic in which social movements, NGOs, and the politicized consumer began to overshadow the historic actors of agribusiness (examples of which we have discussed above). More recently, however, food inflation is firmly placing an upper limit on quality considerations and supply conditions are restored to center stage as market dynamics swing to the emerging economies. New sets of relationships in this system have hardened into new structures for the food system. Traditional controllers of supply both upstream and downstream see their power and their profits enhanced. At the same time, strategic importance of control over natural resources - land and the necessary minerals for productive land use - has stimulated a wave of new entrants: emerging economy governments, investment funds and new private actors to challenge the historic incumbents of agribusiness. The reality of power in the form of control over physical and technological assets has been forcefully reasserted. However, power is also still accumulated in different nodes among these global production networks. In this paper prepared for Oxfam America, we document and define eight critical issue areas where power is accumulating: a) in the shift from public to private governance; b) the closing off of access to markets; c) the rise of intellectual property regimes; d) the changes in access to capital; e) the control over necessary logistics; f) the informalization of labor in the global system; g) the rise of marketing and branding; and h) the shift from public to private decision-making about food. Throughout it all, we focus on the implications for farmers, consumers and communities of the food system in which we are embedded, and suggest potential leveraging points for changing agriculture and food to a more sustainable, equitable system.

Cross-Compliance for Erosion Control: Anticipating Efficiency and Distributive Impacts

Despite increasing attention, the effects of using differential agricultural program benefits to achieve soil conservation are largely unexplored. Viewed in a conventional environmental economics framework, the popularly perceived cross-compliance program may fall short on efficiency grounds. Analysis suggests that the greatest incentive to practice conservation may occur on land with little or no net social benefits forthcoming from erosion control. A by-product of cross-compliance worth consideration is that those likely to benefit most from the program are the highest equity and largest farm operators.

Does the World Need U.S. Farmers Even if Americans Don't?

We consider the implications of trends in the number of U.S. farmers and food imports on the question of what role U.S. farmers have in an increasingly global agrifood system. Our discussion stems from the argument some scholars have made that American consumers can import their food more cheaply from other countries than it can produce it. We consider the distinction between U.S. farmers and agriculture and the effect of the U.S. food footprint on developing nations to argue there might be an important role for U.S. farmers, even if it appears Americans don’t need them. For instance, we may need to protect U.S. farmland and, by implication, U.S. farmers, for future food security needs both domestic and international. We also explore the role of U.S. farmers by considering the question of whether food is a privilege or a right. Although Americans seem to accept that food is a privilege, many scholars and commentators argue that, at least on a global scale, food is a right, particularly for the world’s poor and hungry. If this is the case, then U.S. farmers might have a role in meeting the associated obligation to ensure that the poor of the world have enough food to eat. We look at the consequences of determining that food is a right versus a privilege and the implications of that decision for agricultural subsidies as well as U.S. agriculture and nutrition policies.

Government Programs for Soil Conservation: Progressive or Regressive Effects?

Farmers and landowners are increasingly looking to the federal government for financial support and a comprehensive policy that would encourage the reduction of soil loss on agricultural lands. One general problem has been developing a policy that is both effective and equitable. Of the options available, the most discussed proposal has been the cross-compliance program that bases other agricultural program benefits on the ability of the farmer to meet a specified soil conservation standard. This study concludes that such a policy would have a regressive impact on farmers, and probably consumers, and would in the long run be ineffective.

Home food production in rural areas

Abstract Theories explaining the rise of capitalism have assumed that the complete separation of production from the household was a necessary condition for the creation and maintenance of capitalist labor markets. However, data from this study show that home food production is still quite prevalent in rural areas today. Several reasons, such as concern over the increasing geographic and organizational centralization of the food production system, may explain the persistence of home food production. While these activities generally contribute to the economic well-being of these households, social and cultural reasons for home food production must not be overlooked. The implications of these activities for rural development and as a strategy for social change are discussed.