William E. Garrett

Mechanisms of anterior cruciate ligament injury.

This study examined the mechanisms of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury. In the first part of the study, using a comprehensive, standardized questionnaire, 89 athletes (100 knees) were interviewed about the events surrounding their ACL injury. A noncontact mechanism was reported in 71 (72%) knees and a contact injury in 28 (28%) knees; one patient was unsure if there was any contact. Most of the injuries were sustained at footstrike with the knee close to full extension. Noncontact mechanisms were classified as sudden deceleration prior to a change of direction or landing motion, while contact injuries occurred as a result of valgus collapse of the knee. Hamstring flexibility parameters revealed a statistically higher level of laxity in the injured athletes compared with a matched group of 28 controls. In the second part of the study, videotapes of 27 separate ACL disruptions were reviewed and confirmed that most noncontact injuries occur with the knee close to extension during a sharp deceleration or landing maneuver. Because the knee is in a position to allow the extensor mechanism to strain the ACL and maximum, eccentric muscle force conditions usually apply, the quadriceps may play an important role in ACL disruption. Passive protection of the ACL by the hamstring muscles may be reduced in patients with above-average flexibility.

Noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries: risk factors and prevention strategies.

An estimated 80,000 anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears occur annually in the United States. The highest incidence is in individuals 15 to 25 years old who participate in pivoting sports. With an estimated cost for these injuries of almost a billion dollars per year, the ability to identify risk factors and develop prevention strategies has widespread health and fiscal importance. Seventy percent of ACL injuries occur in noncontact situations. The risk factors for non-contact ACL injuries fall into four distinct categories: environmental, anatomic, hormonal, and biomechanical. Early data on existing neuromuscular training programs suggest that enhancing body control may decrease ACL injuries in women. Further investigation is needed prior to instituting prevention programs related to the other risk factors.

Understanding and Preventing Noncontact Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injuries A Review of the Hunt Valley II Meeting, January 2005

The incidence of noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries in young to middle-aged athletes remains high. Despite early diagnosis and appropriate operative and nonoperative treatments, posttraumatic degenerative arthritis may develop. In a meeting in Atlanta, Georgia (January 2005), sponsored by the American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine, a group of physicians, physical therapists, athletic trainers, biomechanists, epidemiologists, and other scientists interested in this area of research met to review current knowledge on risk factors associated with noncontact anterior cruciate ligament injuries, anterior cruciate ligament injury biomechanics, and existing anterior cruciate ligament prevention programs. This article reports on the presentations, discussions, and recommendations of this group.

Epidemiology of Concussion in Collegiate and High School Football Players

Despite evolutionary changes in protective equipment, head injury remains common in football. We investigated concussion in football and associated epidemiologic issues such as 1) incidence of injury, 2) common signs and symptoms, and 3) patterns in making return-to-play decisions. We received 242 of 392 surveys (62%) that were sent to high school and collegiate certified athletic trainers at the beginning of three football seasons. Of the 17,549 football players represented, 888 (5.1%) sustained at least one concussion, and 131 (14.7% of the 888) sustained a second injury during the same season. The greatest incidence of concussion was found at the high school (5.6%) and collegiate division III (5.5%) levels, suggesting that there is an association between level of play and the proportion of players injured. Players who sustained one concussion in a season were three times more likely to sustain a second concussion in the same season compared with uninjured players. Contact with artificial turf appears to be associated with a more serious concussion than contact with natural grass. Only 8.9% of all injuries involved loss of consciousness, while 86% involved a headache. Overall, 30.8% of all players sustaining a concussion returned to participation on the same day of injury.

Viscoelastic properties of muscle-tendon units The biomechanical effects of stretching

Most muscle stretching studies have focused on defin ing the biomechanical properties of isolated elements of the muscle-tendon unit or on comparing different stretching techniques. We developed an experimental model that was designed to evaluate clinically relevant biomechanical stretching properties in an entire muscle- tendon unit. Our objectives were to characterize the viscoelastic behavior of the muscle-tendon unit and to consider the clinical applications of these viscoelastic properties. Rabbit extensor digitorum longus and tibialis anterior muscle-tendon units were evaluated using methods designed to simulate widely used stretching tech niques. Additionally, the effects of varying stretch rates and of reflex influences were evaluated. We found that muscle-tendon units respond viscoelastically to tensile loads. Reflex activity did not influence the biomechani cal characteristics of the muscle-tendon unit in this model. Experimental techniques simulating cyclic stretching and static stretching resulted in sustained muscle-ten don unit elongations, suggesting that greater flexibility can result if these techniques are used in the clinical setting. With repetitive stretching, we found that after four stretches there was little alteration of the muscle- tendon unit, implying that a minimum number of stretches will lead to most of the elongation in repetitive stretching. Also, greater peak tensions and greater energy absorptions occurred at faster stretch rates, suggesting that the risk of injury in a stretching regimen may be related to the stretch rate, and not to the actual technique. All of these clinically important considera tions can be related to the viscoelastic characteristics of the muscle-tendon unit.

A comparison of knee joint motion patterns between men and women in selected athletic tasks

BACKGROUND Women have higher non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injury rate than men do in sport activities. Non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries frequently occur in sports requiring cutting tasks. Alternated motor control strategies have identified as a potential risk factor for the non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries. The purpose of this study was to compare the patterns of knee kinematics and electromyographic activities in running, side-cutting, and cross-cutting between men and women recreational athletes. METHODS Three-dimensional kinematic data of the knee and electromyographic data of selected muscles across the knee joint were collected for 11 men and 9 women recreational athletes in running, side-cutting, and cross-cutting. Regression analyses with dummy variables for comparison of knee motion patterns between men and women. RESULTS Women tend to have less knee flexion angles, more knee valgus angles, greater quadriceps activation, and lower hamstring activation in comparison to men during the stance phase of each of the three athletic tasks. Literatures suggest these alternated knee motion patterns of women tend to increase the load on the anterior cruciate ligament. CONCLUSION Women on average may have certain motor control strategies that may alter their knee motion patterns. Womens altered knee motion patterns may tend to increase the load on the anterior cruciate ligament in the selected athletic tasks, which may contribute to the increased anterior cruciate ligament injury rate among women. RELEVANCE Non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries frequently occur in sports. Altered motor control strategies and lower extremity motion patterns are likely to play an important role in non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries. Non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injuries may be prevented by correcting altered motor control strategies and associated lower extremity motion patterns through certain training programs.

Non-contact ACL injuries in female athletes: an International Olympic Committee current concepts statement

The incidence of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury remains high in young athletes. Because female athletes have a much higher incidence of ACL injuries in sports such as basketball and team handball than male athletes, the IOC Medical Commission invited a multidisciplinary group of ACL expert clinicians and scientists to (1) review current evidence including data from the new Scandinavian ACL registries; (2) critically evaluate high-quality studies of injury mechanics; (3) consider the key elements of successful prevention programmes; (4) summarise clinical management including surgery and conservative management; and (5) identify areas for further research. Risk factors for female athletes suffering ACL injury include: (1) being in the preovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle compared with the postovulatory phase; (2) having decreased intercondylar notch width on plain radiography; and (3) developing increased knee abduction moment (a valgus intersegmental torque) during impact on landing. Well-designed injury prevention programmes reduce the risk of ACL for athletes, particularly women. These programmes attempt to alter dynamic loading of the tibiofemoral joint through neuromuscular and proprioceptive training. They emphasise proper landing and cutting techniques. This includes landing softly on the forefoot and rolling back to the rearfoot, engaging knee and hip flexion and, where possible, landing on two feet. Players are trained to avoid excessive dynamic valgus of the knee and to focus on the “knee over toe position” when cutting.

Acute Dislocation of the Patella A Correlative Pathoanatomic Study

The objective of our study was to elucidate the char acteristic pathoanatomy associated with patellar dislo cation and report the preliminary results of early surgi cal repair. Twenty-three patients with documented patellar dislocation had standard radiographs and a magnetic resonance imaging scan. Intraarticular le sions were evaluated and treated arthroscopically fol lowed by an open exploration of the medial aspect of the knee in 16 patients. Twelve patients were observed for a minimum of 2 years after surgical repair (average, 34 months). Eleven patients returned for a follow-up examination. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed ef fusion (100%), tears of the femoral insertion of the medial patellofemoral ligament (87%), increased signal in the vastus medialis muscle (78%), and lateral fem oral condyle (87%) and medial patellar (30%) bone bruises. Arthroscopic examination revealed osteo chondral lesions involving the patella and the lateral femoral condyle in 68% of cases. Open surgical explo ration revealed tears of the medial patellofemoral liga ment off the femur in 15 of 16 patients (94%). After medial patellofemoral ligament repair, none of the pa tients experienced recurrent dislocation. Overall 58% of the results were considered to be good or excellent and 42% were fair. Fifty-eight percent of the group returned to their previous sport with no or minor limitations.

Muscle strain injuries.

One of the most common injuries seen in the office of the practicing physician is the muscle strain. Until recently, little data were available on the basic science and clinical application of this basic science for the treatment and prevention of muscle strains. Studies in the last 10 years represent action taken on the direction of investigation into muscle strain injuries from the laboratory and clinical fronts. Findings from the laboratory indicate that certain muscles are susceptible to strain injury (muscles that cross multiple joints or have complex architecture). These muscles have a strain threshold for both passive and active injury. Strain injury is not the result of muscle contraction alone, rather, strains are the result of excessive stretch or stretch while the muscle is being activated. When the muscle tears, the damage is localized very near the muscle-tendon junction. After injury, the muscle is weaker and at risk for further injury. The force output of the muscle returns over the following days as the muscle undertakes a predictable progression toward tissue healing. Current imaging studies have been used clinically to document the site of injury to the muscle-tendon junction. The commonly injured muscles have been described and include the hamstring, the rectus femoris, gastrocnemius, and adductor longus muscles. Injuries inconsistent with involvement of a single muscle-tendon junction proved to be at tendinous origins rather than within the muscle belly. Important information has also been provided regarding injuries with poor prognosis, which are potentially repairable surgically, including injuries to the rectus femoris muscle, the hamstring origin, and the abdominal wall. Data important to the management of common muscle injuries have been published. The risks of reinjury have been documented. The early efficacy and potential for long-term risks of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agents have been shown. New data can also be applied to the field with respect to the beneficial effects of warm-up, temperature, and stretching on the mechanical properties of muscle. These benefits potentially reduce the risks of strain injury to the muscle. Fortunately, many of the factors protecting muscle, such as strength, endurance, and flexibility, are also essential for maximum performance. Future studies should delineate the repair and recovery process emphasizing not only the recovery of function, but also the susceptibility to reinjury during the recovery phase.

Muscle strain injuries: clinical and basic aspects.

Indirect or strain injury to muscle is a common cause of athletic disability. Strain injuries often occur during powerful muscle eccentric contractions. Clinical studies suggest that most injuries cause partial disruption of certain characteristic muscles. Diagnostic imaging studies can demonstrate the location of many injuries. Laboratory studies show that partial and complete injuries exhibit disruption of muscle fibers near the muscle-tendon junction. Healing of partial injuries is characterized by an initial inflammatory response followed by a healing phase marked by fibrosis. Biomechanical studies show that muscle failure occurs at forces much larger than maximal isometric force, and stretch is necessary to create injury. Compared to the passively stretched muscle, muscle activated by nerve contraction and stretched to failure attains a small increase in force at failure, no change in strain to failure, and a large increase in energy absorbed prior to failure. These studies emphasize the ability of muscles to function as energy absorbers in preventing injury to themselves and to bones and joints. Experimental muscle stretching protocols show significant stress relaxation and reduction of stiffness in muscle due to inherent viscoelastic properties of muscle rather than to reflex-mediated effects. These viscoelastic properties may be useful in understanding how muscle injury might be prevented.