William E. Hammitt

Coping behavior to avoid visitor encounters: its relationship to wildland privacy.

Too many visitor encounters can detract from the privacy sought in wildland environments. Coping behavior to avoid or adjust to visitor encounters is one procedure for reducing encounters and maint...

Cognitive dimensions of wilderness privacy: a field test and further explanation.

Abstract In 1981 and 1982, a psychological scale was developed for exploring the several meanings of privacy and solitude that wilderness recreationists find to be important. The scale was never field tested, however. The present report describes the results of a field test of the wilderness privacy scale among backpackers in Great Smoky Mountains National Park in 1987. Factor analysis of 20 items characterizing various aspects of wilderness privacy produced the following five factors, ranging from most to least important: tranquility and natural environment, individual cognitive freedom, social cognitive freedom, intimacy, and individualism. One new factor (social cognitive freedom) that did not appear in the earlier laboratory development of the wilderness privacy scale resulted from the field test. Nevertheless, the most important aspect of wilderness privacy in the field test remained being in a natural, remote environment that offers a sense of tranquility and peacefulness and that involves a freedom...

Cognitive Processes Involved in Environmental Interpretation.

Abstract Familiarization, defined as visitor ability to recognize environmental information and proposed as a cognitive process in environmental interpretation, was examined for 150 users of forest trails. Respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which they recognized correctly statements concerning the content of interpretive sign messages. Nearly three-quarters of the trail users recognized 70 percent or more of the content of the messages. The average familiarity score of hikers was 78 percent. Implications for familiarity as a cognitive process in environmental interpretation are discussed.

Functions of privacy in wilderness environments

Abstract Westin (1967), in his Privacy and Freedom, suggests that there are four basic functions of privacy in society (personal autonomy, emotional release, self‐evaluation, limited and protected communication). Westins theoretical model was examined for its utility in understanding the functions of privacy in wilderness environments. Importance ratings of 106 wilderness users for 28 scale items which characterized the privacy functions were factor analyzed. The factor analysis yielded five functions instead of Westins four; however, Westins model served as a valuable tool for interpreting the functions. “Emotional release” was rated the most important function, while “resting the mind from anxiety and mental fatigue” was the highest rated individual item.

Prospect refuge theory: a psychological orientation for edge effect in recreation environments.

Edge, or the ecotone between teo contrasting habitats, has long been recognized as a preferred environmental setting for wildlife. Recreationists also prefer edge environments, both as physical par...

The familiarity-preference component of on-site recreational experiences.

Abstract Four hundred visitors to a bog environment were surveyed to determine the influence of familiarity on preference response to the visual environment, and to determine the degree of familiarity resulting from the on‐site encounter. Influence of familiarity on visitor preference was measured in terms of degree of visitor preference for visual scenes as a result of acquaintance gained through three means of familiarity: on‐site experiences, viewing of photographic materials prior to an on‐site experience, and number of previous visits. Degree of familiarity resulting from the on‐site encounter was measured by determining the degree of visitor recognition for scenes experienced during the on‐site encounter. Four findings resulted from the study: preference increased after the on‐site experience; prior photographic information decreased preference after the oil‐site experience; prior visits were associated with increased preference; and considerable familiarity resulted from the on‐site encounter, due ...

Toward an ecological approach to perceived crowding in outdoor recreation

Abstract Perceived crowding in outdoor recreation research is generally approached from a sociological or interpersonal basis. The purpose of this paper is to present a conceptual approach to perceived crowding where people/environment interactions are emphasized, rather than social relationships. Crowding is treated as a perceptual reaction to an environmental situation, where environmental constraints interfere with the functioning and task performances desired by an individual. It is postulated that crowding can occur without the presence of others, that it can be the result of functional density and not simply the result of social processes involving the interacting of others.

Wildlife management: managing the hunt versus the hunting experience.

Deer hunter satisfaction is investigated from two perspectives, (1) satisfaction with the hunt/harvest and (2) satisfaction with the overall hunting trip experience. Regression analysis is used to determine what variables best predict satisfaction with the hunt and the hunting experience. Results indicate that animal population variables (number of deer seen, shot at, bagged) are the best determinants of a quality deer hunt, while environmental (outdoors) and social (crowding and hunter behavior) are the best predictors of a quality hunting trip experience. Wildlife managers and researchers need to realize that deer hunters view the hunt/harvest as different from the hunting trip experience and need to manage for both aspects of hunter satisfaction.

COMPARISON OF PERCEIVED RISK TAKING IN GROUPS AND IMPLICATIONS DRAWN FROM THE RISKY-SHIFT PARADIGM

Risk-taking attitudes were investigated from the standpoint of differential primary group associations (family, friends, and mixed relations). The inquiry was designed to test implications emerging from the risky-shift paradigm in a social setting where potential choices regarding health and safety could be taken by the subject. Significant differences were observed between family and friendship patterns of association. Since age and sex previously were significant, these variables were included as possible intervening factors in the design. Age proved significant and changed risk factors associated with family and friendship, while sexual differences were not significant.

Management concerns for swimming, tubing, and wading in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park

Recreational use of streams in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park has increased remarkably during recent years. To better manage the stream resource for visitor needs and at the same time preserve it for future generations, a user study was initiated in 1978. Use patterns, both spatial and temporal, and possible accompanying ecological impacts at three streams were investigated. Sampling was conducted at several sites per stream. The findings indicated that use was concentrated during afternoons and at certain streams and study sites. In addition, different types of users partitioned the streams according to stream morphology (form or structure of pools, riffles, etc.). Major impacts observed were soil compaction and erosion along the streambanks and physical disturbance of the stream bottoms by moving and placing stones to construct dams and raceways.