William H. Durham

The Adaptive Significance of Cultural Behavior

In this article, I argue that human social behavior is a product of the coevolution of human biology and culture. While critical of attempts by anthropologists to explain cultural practices as if they were independent of the ability of individual human beings to survive and reproduce, I am also leery of attempts by biologists to explain the consistencies between neo-Darwinian theory and cultural behavior as the result of natural selection for that behavior. Instead, I propose that both biological and cultural attributes of human beings result to a large degree from the selective retention of traits that enhance the inclusive fitnesses of individuals in their environments. Aspects of human biology and culture may be adaptive in the same sense despite differences between the mechanisms of selection and regardless of their relative importance in the evolution of a trait. The old idea that organic and cultural evolution are complementary can thus be used to provide new explanations for why people do what they do.

Interactions of genetic and cultural evolution: Models and examples

This paper proposes models and examples of five principal modes of interaction between genes and culture in human evolution. Because genes and culture ultimately interact in the minds of individuals, the models are focused on individual level processes of “constrained microevolution.” The central hypotheses are (1) that cultural evolution as well as genetic evolution commonly proceeds by the differential transmission of alternative “instructions” among individuals, (2) that genetic and cultural processes directly interact through mutual influence on each others differentials of transmission in a population, (3) that the cultural process is often self-selecting by its own criteria, and (4) that these criteria generally operate to enhance rather than oppose human adaptation. Evolutionary change at higher levels, which is particularly important in sociocultural evolution, is interpreted as restructuring the nature and extent of the variability available at the individual level. To clarify the conceptual differences of the models and hopefully to stimulate related analyses in other areas, I discuss selected examples of each of these interactions. I conclude with some remarks on the relative importance of the models to human ecology and evolution.

The adaptive significance of cultural behavior: Comments and reply

SummaryFundamentally, theoretically, there is only one process underlying genetic and cultural evolution: natural selection. Organism fitness-enhancement (“adaptive significance”) is one of its practical mechanisms; group formation and maintenance is another, often but not always through fitness-enhancement; and need-fulfillment is still another. If Durham can accept that formulation, and switch from “organism-thinking” to “instruction-thinking” (Cloak, 1975: 178), he will free himself from two handicaps: First, he can forget his worries about “reductionism” and “determinism” (1976a: 100, 101). Under this general theory of natural selection, cultural evolutionis biological evolution, continued by “other” (nongenetic) means. Second, he will spare himself the appearance of anthropomorphism, mentalism, and wishy-washiness attendant on his discussion of kinds of “significance,” other than adaptive “significance,” of cultural behaviors (1976a: 102–106, 115).

Social and environmental effects of ecotourism in the Osa Peninsula of Costa Rica: the Lapa Rios case

Ecotourism comes with a definitional promise to promote responsible travel to natural areas, to make a positive contribution to environmental conservation, and to enhance the well-being of local communities. This article summarises a study designed to test whether the Lapa Rios Eco-lodge of the Osa Peninsula of Costa Rica, a widely acclaimed example of the species, delivers on these promises and to what degree. The study uses an interdisciplinary nested-scale analysis, combining careful on-the-ground interview methods with remote sensing analysis of forest and land-use impact of the Lapa Rios (LR) lodge. This combination of methods allows us to reject the null hypothesis, confirming that LR lodge has made substantial contributions to both local livelihoods and environmental conservation, including the highest rates of reforestation of all areas studied in the Osa Peninsula. We conclude that LR fulfils the definitional promise of ecotourism and delivers social, economic, and environmental benefits in the region.

Can ecotourism deliver real economic, social, and environmental benefits? A study of the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica

Doubt persists about ecotourisms ability to make tangible contributions to conservation and deliver benefits for host communities. This work in Costa Ricas Osa Peninsula tests the hypothesis that ecotourism in this region is more effective at improving well-being for local residents, at enhancing their access to key resources and information, and at supporting biodiversity conservation than other locally available economic sectors. Data from 128 semi-structured interviews with local workers, both in ecotourism and in other occupations, together with associated research, indicate that ecotourism offers the best currently available employment opportunities, double the earnings of other livelihoods, and other linked benefits. Locally, ecotourism is viewed as the activity contributing most to improvements in residents’ quality of life in the Osa Peninsula and to increased levels of financial and attitudinal support for parks and environmental conservation. Ecolodge ownership by local people is substantial, and many local ecotourism workers plan to launch their own businesses. The data offer a convincing rebuttal to arguments that ecotourism does little to address poverty or disparities in access to resources and equally rebuts claims that ecotourism is simply a part of the “neoliberal conservation toolkit” that cannot help but exacerbate the very inequalities it purports to address.

Nature-based tourism's impact on environmental knowledge, attitudes, and behavior: a review and analysis of the literature and potential future research

Although nature-based tourism is often promoted as benefiting local destinations through income generation, employment, and direct conservation support, it is also believed to influence tourists’ environmentally friendly attitudes, knowledge, and ultimately their behavior. Yet, few studies have empirically documented these outcomes, and those that do are inconsistent in the variables measured and the time frame analyzed. This paper examines the empirical research on nature-based tourisms ability to foster long-term stewardship behavior among travelers by conducting a systematic review of peer-reviewed tourism research published between 1995 and 2013. This search, focused on literature addressing changes in tourists’ environmentally related knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and actual behaviors, yielded just 30 empirical studies. Outcomes related to new environmental knowledge were commonly reported in these studies, but findings related to environmental attitudes and behaviors were inconsistent. Few studies measured environmental behavior directly, and fewer still include longitudinal assessments of persistent changes in attitudes or behaviors. We suggest potential future areas for research as well as programmatic strategies that may facilitate favorable outcomes from nature-based tourism, particularly those related to tourists’ knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. Key areas include understanding visitors’ prior experiences and background, designing and delivering more effective interpretive messages, and using social media.

The effect of land use change and ecotourism on biodiversity: a case study of Manuel Antonio, Costa Rica, from 1985 to 2008

Development in biodiversity rich areas is of global concern. While development may lead to socioeconomic benefits, this often comes concomitant with biodiversity loss and deforestation. Biodiversity rich areas present the opportunity for both improvements in socioeconomic conditions and conservation; however numerous challenges exist. Costa Rica’s Manuel Antonio National Park presents an ideal case study to investigate the balance between alternative forms of development which have contrasting environmental impacts. The Manuel Antonio region is a highly dynamic landscape experiencing deforestation, from agriculture, cattle ranching and oil palm plantations; and also reforestation from abandonment of land holdings and nature oriented tourism. Landscape dynamics are closely intertwined with the livelihoods and perspectives on biodiversity conservation of local communities, determining ecological sustainability. We use an analysis combining multi-temporal remote sensing of land cover dynamics from 1985 to 2008 with questionnaire data from local families on their socioeconomic status, perspectives on conservation, and perceived changes in local wildlife populations. Our results show that, while regeneration occurred and forest fragmentation in the area decreased from 1985 to 2008, Manuel Antonio National Park is rapidly becoming isolated. Decreasing ecological connectivity is related to the rapid expansion of oil palm plantations adjacent to the park and throughout the lowland areas. Perceived decreases in wildlife abundance and compositional change are evident throughout the area, with local communities attributing this primarily to illegal hunting activities. Nature based tourism in the area presents an effective strategy for conservation, including reductions in hunting, through increased valuation of biodiversity and protected areas, and socioeconomic advantages. However, without urgent efforts to limit deforestation and preserve the remaining forested corridor connecting the park to core primary forest, the ability to maintain biodiversity in the park will be reduced.

Positive and Negative Effects of a Threatened Parrotfish on Reef Ecosystems

Species that are strong interactors play disproportionately important roles in the dynamics of natural ecosystems. It has been proposed that their presence is necessary for positively shaping the structure and functioning of ecosystems. We evaluated this hypothesis using the case of the worlds largest parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), a globally imperiled species. We used direct observation, animal tracking, and computer simulations to examine the diverse routes through which B. muricatum affects the diversity, dispersal, relative abundance, and survival of the corals that comprise the foundation of reef ecosystems. Our results suggest that this species can influence reef building corals in both positive and negative ways. Field observation and simulation outputs indicated that B. muricatum reduced the abundance of macroalgae that can outcompete corals, but they also feed directly on corals, decreasing coral abundance, diversity, and colony size. B. muricatum appeared to facilitate coral advancement by mechanically dispersing coral fragments and opening up bare space for coral settlement, but they also damaged adult corals and remobilized a large volume of potentially stressful carbonate sediment. The impacts this species has on reefs appears to be regulated in part by its abundance-the effects of B. muricatum were more intense in simulation scenarios populated with high densities of these fish. Observations conducted in regions with high and low predator (e.g., sharks) abundance generated results that are consistent with the hypothesis that these predators of B. muricatum may play a role in governing their abundance; thus, predation may modulate the intensity of the effects they have on reef dynamics. Overall our results illustrate that functionally unique and threatened species may not have universally positive impacts on ecosystems and that it may be necessary for environmental managers to consider the diverse effects of such species and the forces that mediate the strength of their influence.

An ecotourism partnership in the Peruvian Amazon: the case of Posada Amazonas.

From the moment the term was coined (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1987), ecotourism was deemed to be an integration of conservation and local development. It is widely recognized as well that, in order to provide a memorable and authentic experience, ecotourism requires relatively intact natural areas, many of which are found in the poorest and most remote regions of the world (Christ et al., 2003). None the less, ecotourism has demonstrated the capacity to bring together demand with the offer in such a way that win–win situations sometimes occur between the stakeholders involved: the environment, communities, entrepreneurs/ operators and visitors. One example is Posada Amazonas, a 30 double-bedroom lodge located along the Tambopata River in south-eastern Peru, in the biodiversity ‘hotspot’ of the Tropical Andes (Myers et al., 2000). The lodge brings together the native community of Infierno and a private company, Rainforest Expeditions, to achieve a common goal: to prove that local communities can generate enough income through ecotourism to promote natural resource stewardship and conservation. By pursuing sustainable local development through the marketing of wildlife and nature, the longterm goals of both the community and the private company can be met.

Social Capital in Development: Bonds, Bridges, and Links in Osa and Golfito, Costa Rica

Limited social capital poses a critical bottleneck for sustainable rural development. Despite vast investment, development interventions focused on preserving the biodiversity of the Osa and Golfito region of Costa Rica have done little to address poverty or improve the well-being of local residents. The authors of the current study draw upon field research and data gathered from semi-structured interviews with 310 community leaders and rural residents to investigate the bottlenecks to development and how they are related to forms of social capital in the Osa and Golfito cantons in Costa Rica. Specifically, we draw upon the distinction of bonding, bridging, and linking forms of social capital to characterize the nature of benefits from collective action in communities in Osa and Golfito. The data suggest that the lack of bridging and linking forms of social capital may explain the regions persistent development challenges and may thus indicate where development-related investments are most likely to bear...