William J. Craig

Community participation and geographic information systems.

Geographic information systems (GIS) and geographic information technologies (GIT) are increasingly employed in research and development projects that incorporate community participation. For example, there are now applications involving indigenous natural resource mapping in arctic and tropical regions within the Americas (Marozas, 1993; Cultural Survival Quarterly, 1995; Bond, this volume). There is also a rapidly growing network of planning professionals interested in how GIS can merge with community participation in the context of neighborhood revitalization and urban planning (Aitkin and Michel, 1995; Craig and Elwood, 1998; Leitner et al., this volume; Sawicki and Peterman, this volume; Talen, 1999, 2000). Environmental groups are experimenting with community GIS applications to promote environmental equity and address environmental racism (Sieber, 2000; Kellog, 1999). Furthermore, NGOs, aid organizations, and governmental agencies are linking communities with geographic information systems as they seek to promote more popular and sustainable development projects (Dunn, et al., 1997; Elwood and Leitner, 1998; Gonzalez, 1995; Harris et al., 1995; Hutchinson and Toledano, 1993; Jordan and Shrestha, 1998; Kwaku-Kyem, 1999; Mitchell, 1997; Obermeyer and Pinto, 1994; Rambaldi, G. and J. Callosa 2000; Weiner, et al., 1995; Weiner and Harris, 1999).

How and Why Community Groups Use Maps and Geographic Information

Introduction Strong neighborhoods make healthy cities. The obvious questions, then, are what makes strong neighborhoods and what can be done to build that strength? People who have access to GIS (geographic information systems) have come to feel they might have a resource that could help neighborhoods by providing maps and geographic information. In fact, because of the complications and expense of using GIS, community groups have often gone to a GIS expert to get the resources they need. This relationship is documented in an earlier paper by the senior author (Sawicki and Craig 1996). When that earlier work was about to go to press, the two authors asked themselves, What do community groups do with this information? They provided a few general answers, but had no overall framework to present. To answer the question about community use of information, new research was undertaken; the results of that effort are presented in this paper.(1) Cities are Social Organisms Individual neighbors affect ones quality of life and thereby ones sense of the quality of the city (Jacobs 1961). But equally important is the neighborhood as a whole, and especially neighborhood and community organizations. The city is a social cauldron where different groups struggle to define the nature of that particular place as well as of their society. Castells (1983) argues that grass-roots organizations are a critical part of that struggle, documenting their influence across many cultures. Only by organizing can individuals have the impetus to participate in the traditional power structure. In order to be effective, community groups need to inspire others to appreciate their situation and proposed solutions. The power base of a community group comes from the size and commitment of its membership. Its success is measured by how many resources it has and how much positive change it is able to bring to its community. Accordingly, there are two types of audiences who must be inspired: the community itself (internal) and those who control the resources (external). Maps and geographic information can play an effective role in the success of a community group. Durrance (1983) argues that information is the key to successful community organizations; they gain credibility by providing it to their members, the public, and policy makers. More than that, information can make the community groups internally more efficient and can act as a critical resource in buying a role for the group in any external coalition building. How and Why Do Community Groups Use Maps and Geographic Information in Their Work? To answer this question in detail, we reviewed literature from many fields: planning, political science, communications, social movement, social psychology, and community development. And to balance theory with practice, we interviewed community leaders who use maps and geographic information. Our goal was to develop a conceptual framework for the use of information which could be a useful guide to GIS specialists and community groups seeking to enhance the social, political, and economic situation of their neighborhoods. Geographic information thus becomes a tool for empowerment. Nature of Community Groups Community groups have become important in American politics for a number of reasons.(2) From a philosophical perspective, Americans generally believe that power comes from individuals and that organizations of individuals add to that strength.(3) From a practical perspective, planners have come to realize that people in the community know more about local problems and, when properly mobilized, are quite effective at bringing about positive change (Jones 1990). From a political perspective, the decline of monolithic sources of power, such as the political party, has led to the rise of pluralism, where many groups have a role in the power base (Judge et al. 1995). In this era of pluralism, coalitions of diverse groups are formed to gain a common goal. …

The Internet aids community participation in the planning process

This paper looks at community participation in the planning process. In some ways citizens are the forgotten part of collaborative planning, but changes in the political system since the 1960s demand significant input from the community. Experience and the literature show citizen participation is much more effective if it is channeled through a community organization. The community organization has significant communication problems in needing both to interact with various officials at the planning table and to interact with its constituency to inform and represent them. The Internet is proving to be a useful tool for this purpose. This paper examines how the Internet is beginning to affect that process in one urban area, the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul.

The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act and the Working Poor

Working AFDC recipients were significantly affected by the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981. A majority were terminated from the program, losing cash and Medicaid benefits. This study assesses the impact of these changes on the ability of welfare recipients to meet their basic needs. Longitudinal surveys of 558 affected families in Hennepin County, Minnesota, provided information on work/grant status, labor force participation, economic status, and health care. The working poor who were dropped from AFDC have largely maintained their independence by increasing their labor force participation. However, they are vulnerable to problems arising from inadequate health care.

Meeting the Basic Needs of the Working Poor

The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1981 (OBRA) forced the denial of welfare assistance to many working recipients of Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). This study assesses the labor force participation and economic status of former working AFDC recipients in Hennepin County, Minnesota, as well as their ability to meet their basic needs during a 2-year post-OBRA period. The vast majority of study participants did not return to welfare, which suggests that they found the benefits of working to be more attractive than those offered by welfare. Only a subset of families appeared to have significant problems with health insurance coverage and day care. State and local governments will be able to afford to help the working poor only if they can solve the difficult problem of targeting support to those truly in need.

The silver tsunami and rural small business retention: What can communities do?

Abstract Since many rural communities have a disproportionately older population, the “silver tsunami” of retiring baby boomers has fueled interest in small business succession as a business retention strategy. Most business succession research has focused solely on the firm level without addressing community-level aspects. This article emphasizes the importance of community responses by blending findings from a rural small business survey with key informant interviews. Study findings suggest that successful business succession creates an opportunity for business expansion. Of the 118 new owners surveyed, 41% increased employment, 68% increased sales volume, and 68% increased their customer base. Communities reported facilitating business succession by (1) emphasizing the importance of succession planning, (2) reducing financial, time, and confidentiality barriers, and (3) providing accessible resources.