William J. McLaughlin

Improving the contingent valuation method: A psychological perspective☆

Abstract Results of research on the social psychology of human decision making that offer direction for improving the contingent valuation method are reviewed. The paper focuses on the findings of that literature related to (1) limitations of human information processing and judgment-making abilities, (2) the influence of elicitation stimuli and expectations, and (3) quality of decision making in the face of too much or too little stress. Within the context of this literature, specific research directions are recommended that can improve the validity and reliability of the results of contingent valuation studies. More multidisciplinary studies are encouraged.

Barriers and facilitators to integration among scientists in transdisciplinary landscape analyses: a cross-country comparison

Abstract Scientists are increasingly challenged by the call to develop more effective methods for working across disciplines in landscape analysis projects. The aim of this study was to improve our understanding of the barriers and facilitators to integration of perspectives across disciplinary and organizational boundaries. Two research projects with similar objectives served as cases. The projects were the assessment phase of the North American Interior Columbia River Basin Ecosystem Management Project and the Danish Boundaries in the Landscape . An inductive research design using qualitative data analysis methods was applied. Data sources included in-depth interviews, observations, and archival documents. Comparison of the two research projects, each conducted in a different western culture, revealed a set of similar barriers to cooperation and integration: individual-based, group-based, group- and individual-based, and organization culture-based boundaries. In three of the four boundary categories, barriers in one project were identified as facilitators in the other project. Furthermore, there were also barriers and facilitators that were only listed in one of the projects. Differences in barriers and facilitators in the two projects may be related to the scope, size, and political context of the projects, as well as the differences in national culture. We conclude the paper with a set of recommendations to scientists working across disciplines in landscape level assessments.

Community-based social impact assessment: the case of salmon-recovery on the lower Snake River

This paper presents a process for gathering and using data for socio-economic indicators in a community-based impact assessment conducted in 1999 across a three-state area. It assessed community-level impacts of alternative Federal actions to recover salmon runs, ranging from maintaining the existing hydro system to breaching four dams on the lower Snake River. Residents from 27 diverse communities participated in structured, interactive forums that sought to empower them with an understanding of the results of concurrent biological, economic and physical impact studies as the basis for making more informed judgments. This approach raises significant issues for developing and applying socio-economic indicators to a highly controversial effort to sustain endangered species across a large landscape.

Integration of recreation and tourism in Idaho

Abstract During the 1984 Idaho Governors Conference on Outdoor Recreation and Tourism, interactive communication methods were used to generate ideas on perceptions about current relationships between recreation and tourism organizations, their facilities, infrastructures and programs; and on major issues facing the states leisure, recreation and tourism organizations. The nominal group processes and interaction techniques that were used facilitated high levels of communication among participants. A synopsis of the output of the working sessions is presented, summarizing the ideas and concerns of private tourism operators and state and federal recreation professionals. Building upon the data, a framework is discussed for conceptualizing the relationships between outdoor recreation and tourism services and understanding the social organization that delivers them in a predominantly rural, resource-based, and public land-dominated state.

Social ecological complex adaptive systems: a framework for research on payments for ecosystem services

The environment is both a setting for and a product of human interactions. Understanding the dynamic nature of human-environment interactions is critical for mitigating the impacts of human induced environmental change and understanding how the environment shapes social systems. Current research has focused on the reduced ability of many natural systems to provide ecosystem services and the subsequent impact on human well-being. Furthermore, there has been a proliferation of cases analyzing the impacts of payment programs designed to enhance ecosystem services. However, analyses that link environmental policies through to their ecological results are not common and methods to do so are not thoroughly developed. To better analyze these interactions, a theory or framework is necessary. This article presents a framework of social ecological complex adaptive systems (SECAS). The framework links structuration theory from social science with the theories of complex adaptive systems from ecology to provide an enhanced understanding of the human drivers and responses to environmental change. The framework is presented as a recursive process where social and ecological systems are both the medium for and product of social action and ecological disturbance. A case study of Costa Rica’s ecosystem service payment program is presented as a demonstration of empirical applicability. This framework is proposed as a method to evaluate payments for ecosystem services, conservation policies, urban ecosystems, and for land use change in general.

Results of Community Deliberation About Social Impacts of Ecological Restoration: Comparing Public Input of Self-Selected Versus Actively Engaged Community Members

Participatory processes for obtaining residents’ input about community impacts of proposed environmental management actions have long raised concerns about who participates in public involvement efforts and whose interests they represent. This study explored methods of broad-based involvement and the role of deliberation in social impact assessment. Interactive community forums were conducted in 27 communities to solicit public input on proposed alternatives for recovering wild salmon in the Pacific Northwest US. Individuals identified by fellow residents as most active and involved in community affairs (“AE residents”) were invited to participate in deliberations about likely social impacts of proposed engineering and ecological actions such as dam removal. Judgments of these AE participants about community impacts were compared with the judgments of residents motivated to attend a forum out of personal interest, who were designated as self-selected (“SS”) participants. While the magnitude of impacts rated by SS participants across all communities differed significantly from AE participants’ ratings, in-depth analysis of results from two community case studies found that both AE and SS participants identified a large and diverse set of unique impacts, as well as many of the same kinds of impacts. Thus, inclusion of both kinds of residents resulted in a greater range of impacts for consideration in the environmental impact study. The case study results also found that the extent to which similar kinds of impacts are specified by AE and SS group members can differ by type of community. Study results caution against simplistic conclusions drawn from this approach to community-wide public participation. Nonetheless, the results affirm that deliberative methods for community-based impact assessment involving both AE and SS residents can provide a more complete picture of perceived impacts of proposed restoration activities.

Estimating total statewide travel

Abstract Past research has not addressed the specific procedures needed to estimate the total number of people traveling by motor vehicle in a state or the number of vehicular trips they take based on a sample of those travelers. Methods were developed in a study in which leisure travelers were surveyed enroute throughout a state over a years time. Procedures involved in trip estimation are discussed, and a simple method for cross-validating estimates obtained is proposed. An estimate of one segment of these trips was validated by comparing it with a figure obtained from a state agency, suggesting that the approach is sound. Implications of the method and its results are discussed.

Comprehensive evaluation of information/education programs to reduce recreation impacts on the lower salmon river†

This paper reports a study evaluating an information/education program to reduce human waste and campfire impacts along a portion of the Lower Salmon River in Idaho. A field experiment and cost-effectiveness analysis were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of this impact-reduction program. Significant statistical and managerial reductions in the numbers of impacts between control and treatment periods were not found. Use of the education program was slightly more cost-effective than maintenance in meeting managements overall objectives. Implications of the study results for future management and research efforts are discussed.

Public Deliberation About Salmon Restoration Impacts: Differences In The Input Of Citizens In Different Community Roles

We conducted a deliberative participatory process for social impact assessment (SIA), where interactive, community-based forums (ICFs) gathered public input about community impacts of alternatives for salmon recovery in the Inland Northwest of the United States. After residents were provided information about alternatives and engaged in facilitated discussions, we elicited their understandings of community conditions and judgments of socio-economic impacts.The present analysis focuses on the proposition that citizens engaged in the ICF process who represented diverse roles, based on community domains such as business, health-care, and education, would significantly differ in their judgments about those socio-economic impacts. We collected data on 705 community residents in forums conducted in 27 communities across the Inland Northwest. Results affirm that differences in roles and associated lifestyles, ideologies, and political viewpoints were related to differences in judgments of community conditions and contentiousness of planning alternatives. Implications for the ICF process and its effectiveness for SIA, as well as for other kinds of participatory processes, are discussed.