William L. Cron

The role of goal orientation following performance feedback.

This study examined the relationship of goal orientation and performance over a series of 2 challenging performance events. After providing performance feedback on the 1st event, the authors found that the relationship between a learning goal orientation and performance remained positive for the 2nd event, the relationship between a proving goal orientation and performance diminished from a positive to a nonsignificant level, and the relationship between an avoiding goal orientation and performance remained negative. Data analysis also indicated that the relationships between the 3 goal orientation dimensions and the performance event were differentially mediated by goal setting, self-efficacy, and effort.

The Influence of Goal Orientation and Self-Regulation Tactics on Sales Performance: A Longitudinal Field Test

The authors investigated the influence of goal orientation on sales performance in a longitudinal field study with salespeople. As hypothesized, a learning goal orientation had a positive relationship with sales performance. This relationship was fully mediated by 3 self-regulation tactics: goal setting, effort, and planning. In contrast, a performance goal orientation was unrelated to sales performance. These results suggest that a focus on skill development, even for a veteran workforce, is likely to be associated with higher performance. Management should seek evidence of a learning goal orientation when selecting new employees, while avoiding an excessive focus on performance goal orientation without a comparable skill-development focus.

A Maximum Likelihood Methodology for Clusterwise Linear Regression

This paper presents a conditional mixture, maximum likelihood methodology for performing clusterwise linear regression. This new methodology simultaneously estimates separate regression functions and membership inK clusters or groups. A review of related procedures is discussed with an associated critique. The conditional mixture, maximum likelihood methodology is introduced together with the E-M algorithm utilized for parameter estimation. A Monte Carlo analysis is performed via a fractional factorial design to examine the performance of the procedure. Next, a marketing application is presented concerning the evaluations of trade show performance by senior marketing executives. Finally, other potential applications and directions for future research are identified.

The relationship between computerization and performance: A strategy for maximizing the economic benefits of computerization

Abstract The relationship between computerization and several measures of overall firm performance is examined. Sample firms consisted of 138 wholesalers in a single industry with annual sales between one million and over ten million dollars. Three performance comparisons are presented: users versus non-users of computers, three levels of usage, and class of computer usage. Results indicate that computerization is related to overall performance. Non-users tend to be small firms with about average overall performance. On the other hand, firms owning computers and making extensive use of them in a variety of ways tend to be either very high or low performers. Possible explanations for these bi-modal results are presented.

Effects of Trait Competitiveness and Perceived Intraorganizational Competition on Salesperson Goal Setting and Performance

The authors assess the effects of trait competitiveness and competitive psychological climate on self-set goal levels and sales performance. The results indicate an interaction between trait compet...

Influence of formalization on the organizational commitment and work alienation of salespeople and industrial buyers.

A model is investigated in which organizational formalization influences work alienation through role ambiguity, role conflict, and organizational commitment. Interrelationships are tested with dat...

Job Attitudes and Performance during Three Career Stages.

Abstract The study tests the career stages model developed by Super (1957, The Psychology of Careers, New York: Harper). The theory suggests three distinct career stages between ages 21 and 60, each with its own career issues, job-related attitudes, and behavior. A total of 675 salespersons participated in this study. Attitudinal and career measures were taken from previously developed instruments. Support for the theory was found. Within each stage, different attitudes and behaviors were found to predict sales performance in accordance with the theory.

Business Strategy and the Management of Plateaued Employees

This study compared effective and ineffective plateaued salespersons in two companies having different business strategies in terms of their job histories, job satisfactions, perceived work environ...

Effects of Goal-Directed Emotions on Salesperson Volitions, Behavior, and Performance: A Longitudinal Study

The authors investigate the motivational effects of emotions in a sales force context. The personal stakes that salespeople have in a goal situation triggered anticipation of emotions that result from attaining or failing to attain their performance goal. Positive anticipatory emotions were positively related to volitions and mediated the relationship between personal stakes and volitions. Goal attainment was positively related to positive outcome emotions and negatively related to negative outcome emotions. Goal-directed behavior was positively associated with positive outcome emotions, independently of goal attainment. The findings suggest that emotions are an important driving force behind sales force motivation. The authors discuss the implications for sales management, theory development, and further research. A ttempts to identify the motivational antecedents of sales performance constitute one of the longeststanding research streams in marketing research (Churchill et al. 1985). This research, however, has generally neglected a basic psychological factor likely to affect sales force motivation, behavior, and performance: emotions. Although personal selling is a profession in which emotional highs and lows are commonplace, existing research provides little indication of how emotions are related to motivation, behavior, and performance. The research literature suggests that salesperson motivation results primarily from rational thought processes, unaffected by emotions. Yet emotions constitute a powerful psychological force that can affect behavior and performance in

The Role of Goal Orientation on Negative Emotions and Goal Setting When Initial Performance Falls Short of One's Performance Goal

This longitudinal field study examined the influence of goal orientation on both negative emotional reactions to performance feedback and subsequent self-set goal level. After completing an initial performance event and receiving negative performance feedback, learning and proving goal orientations had nonsignificant relations with the intensity of negative emotional reactions to feedback. In contrast, an avoiding goal orientation had a positive relation with the intensity of negative emotional reactions. For a subsequent performance event a month later, we found 2 relation patterns. First, negative emotional reactions mediated the relation of an avoiding goal orientation with goal setting. Second, a learning goal orientation moderated the relation of negative emotional reactions with goal setting. Specifically, we found a negative relation between the intensity of negative emotional reactions and goal level for individuals with a low learning goal orientation. For individuals with a high learning goal orientation, however, the relation was nonsignificant. Overall, the study findings provide insights on how goal orientation influences initial emotional reactions and subsequent self-regulation in the face of negative performance feedback.