William L. Hathaway

Religion and the Problem-Solving Process: Three Styles of Coping

Three styles of problem-solving were proposed, each involving a different reported relationship between the individual and God. Scales were developed to measure these problem-solving styles and were administered to 197 church members. These three styles were clearly identifiable through factor analysis. Further, as predicted, the three styles of problem-solving related differently to measures of religiousness and competence. The report of a problem-solving style involving active personal exchange with God (Collaborative) appears to be part of an internalized committed form of religion, one holding positive implications for the competence of the individual. A problem-solving style in which the individual waits for solutions from God (Deferring) seems to be part of an externally-oriented religion providing answers to questions the individual is less able to resolve. This style was associated with lower levels of competence. A Self-Directing style emphasizes the freedom God gives people to direct their own lives. This approach appears to be an active coping orientation which stresses personal agency, involves lower levels of traditional religious involvement, and is part of a generally effective style of functioning. This study points to the important diverse roles religion plays in the problem-solving process.

Intrinsic Religiousness, Religious Coping, and Psychosocial Competence: A Covariance Structure Analysis

A causal model was proposed in which the relationship between intrinsic religiousness and psychosocial competence is mediated by religious coping styles. The model asserts that the correlation between intrinsic religiousness and competence is suppressed due to differential mediation by collaborative and deferring religious coping styles. A covariance structure analysis using LISREL was utilized to test the model. A nested model comparison was conducted to assess the possible effects of two response bias variables: indiscriminate proreligiousness and social desirability. Multiple paperand-pencil measures of all the variables except the response biases were included in a survey administered to church attenders chosen from the mailing list of two midwestern churches through a stratified, random sampling procedure. A total sample of 108 was obtained. The covariance structure analysis provided support for the validity of the measures. The nested model comparison failed to support the importance of response bias for explaining the relationships between the religiousness and competence variables. Substantial support was obtained for the inconsistent mediation hypothesis.

Assessing religious/spiritual functioning: A neglected domain in clinical practice?

Is client religious or spiritual functioning adequately addressed in clinical practice? Two studies are presented that address this issue. Each study was informed by an endogenous view of spirituality as a clinically relevant functional domain. The first study surveyed clinicians at 4 exemplar clinics. The second study was a national survey of 1,000 clinical psychologists. Both studies found that psychologists believe client religiousness/spirituality to be an important area of functioning. Yet most do not routinely assess the domain or address it in treatment planning. The article concludes by examining the clinical implications of an endogenous perspective on client spirituality and religiousness.

Religious Diversity in the Military Clinic: Four Cases

The military is a context that contains considerable religious diversity. This article presents 4 cases that illustrate a range of important clinical developments arising from a spiritually sensitive and informed approach to practice. Two of the cases involve Christian clients and 2 involve neopagan clients. In 3 of the cases, competent management of religious/spiritual issues was important for decisions related to the military mission. The cases illustrate the value of religiously accommodative practice, multidimensional spiritual assessment, familiarity with varieties of unconventional as well as conventional spirituality, and the sorts of resources the clinical psychology of religion might offer for distinguishing healthy from unhealthy religious functioning.

Scripture and Psychological Science: Integrative Challenges & Callings

A brief classification of a range of approaches to engaging Scripture in psychology is provided including one non-normative and three normative strategies (Bible as encyclopedia of revealed truths, Bible as a source of theological truths and values, and Bible as divine speech received by providentially situated readers). The implications of each of these for an integrative Christian psychology are discussed. Five issues are examined that require further development by Christians in psychology. If Scripture has authoritative priority then how might this authority concretely function in psychological science? What is the proper scope of Scripture with regard to psychology? What positive contributions to psychology are germinal within Scripture? Can Christian psychological scholarship contribute to Biblical hermeneutics? What improvements in integrative curriculum would facilitate greater attention to the Word of God in the discipline of psychology? These various issues present integrative challenges and callings for current and future generations of Christians in psychology.

Clinical Practice with Religious/spiritual Issues: Niche, Proficiency or Specialty

The process of specialty recognition in professional psychology has become increasingly formalized in recent years. The American Psychological Association (APA) now formally defines and recognizes specialties in psychology and organizations such as the American Board of Professional Psychology have repositioned themselves as specialist credentialing bodies. A process model of specialization is presented with increasing levels of specialization arranged from more generalized to more specialized as follows: nonspecialized general practice, niche practice, proficiency, and formal specialty practice. The distinction between de facto and de jure recognition of specialty practice is discussed. It is argued that clinical work with religious/spiritual issues (RSI) already constitutes a practice niche and that numerous de facto proficiencies have been developed for this niche. The prospects and challenges for more formal specialty recognition of the domain of practice are discussed. The article concludes by briefly considering the relationship of “Christian counseling” to a possible formal specialty in clinical work with religious/spiritual issues.

EXPANDING HORIZONS FOR CHRISTIANS IN PSYCHOLOGY

The integration of psychology and Christianity involves the juxtaposition of at least two horizons of understanding. Numerous attempts have been made to produce an expanded horizon that is faithfully and integrally both Christian and psychological. The current paper explores the role of the concept of “faithful comprehension” as a regulative ideal for integration. This idea is unpacked both in light of externalist epistemology and hermeneutical realism. Some implications for psychological and Christian knowing are considered. The paper concludes by calling Christian psychologists, and Christian psychology training programs, to develop expanded epistemologies that complement what is truth-productive in psychological science with other methods that allow a more complete range of the person to be investigated. Such calls are not unique in the integration literature. Externalisms emphasis on reliable truth production clarifies what must be accomplished by any such expanded psychological science, Christian or otherwise.

Common Sense Is Not Consensus: Professional Ethics as Marksman Ship

Tjeltveits response to Hathaways proposal to ground ethics on natural moral sense raises several significant issues and extends the discussion in important directions. Yet some of these issues arise from a misunderstanding of subtle but vital aspects of common sense ethics. Despite the cogent concerns raised by Tjeltveit, the central value of common sense ethics as a foundation for ethical practice remains. More importantly, no feasible alternative is readily apparent. The one promised by Tjeltveit either is unclear or does not fare as well as the common sense alternative suggested in Hathaways proposal. Contrary to his claim that common sense ethics is unlikely to produce moral excellence, a grounding of ethical judgment in the moral sense provides concrete resources for superlative ethical judgment and inspiration. Treating moral judgment as, at least in part, a sense opens the door for a vision of moral discernment as marksmanship. The fundamental assumption that one is aiming at ‘hitting’ objective moral truth motivates serious ethical concern. An emphasis on the natural moral sense in the context of moral realism also results in a commitment to precision under varied conditions of practice. Such a view does not inadequately consider the role of sin. Rather it takes literally and seriously the deep meaning behind the most common biblical term for sin: hamartia.

Common Sense Professional Ethics: A Christian Appraisal

Christian organizations have joined the secular professions in spelling out detailed ethical codes. Yet what basis can be provided for the supposition that these ethical codes truly inform us about what is objectively right or wrong? Frequently, modern ethicists have argued that we must derive our moral judgments by the application some specific ‘ethical theory’ to ensure that we are arriving at moral truth. The lack of success in this modern project has contributed to post-modern skepticism about the possibility of arriving at objective moral truth. The modern moral project, and its post-modern skeptics, share a set of mistaken assumptions Plantinga has summarized under the term “internalism.” These assumptions are contrasted with the common sense moral realism advocated by the Christian thinker Thomas Reid. It is argued that common sense moral realism provides a practical and rich basis for professional ethics that is informed by a Christian world-view, one that does not leave us with the forced choice of either first justifying our ethical beliefs on some special grounds or doubting the reality of objective moral truth. The implications of this approach for ethical training are briefly considered.