William M. Bukowski

Children's peer relations : a meta-analytic review of popular, rejected, neglected, controversial, and average sociometric status

Two-dimensional sociometric models have had a critical role in the investigation of childrens peer relations in the past decade. In a meta-analysis, fitting categorical models (Hedges, 1982), sociometric group differences on behavioral and information source typologies were assessed. The broad-band behavioral analysis showed that popular childrens array of competencies makes them likely recipients of positive peer nominations, whereas high levels of aggression and withdrawal and low levels of sociability and cognitive abilities are associated with rejected peer status. A consistent profile marked by less sociability and aggression emerged for neglected status. Controversial children had higher aggressive behavior than rejected children but compensated for it with significantly better cognitive and social abilities. The moderator effects of narrow-band behavioral categories and information source were also examined.

The power of friendship: protection against an escalating cycle of peer victimization

This study examined 2 aspects of friendship (presence and perceived qualities of a best friend) as moderators of behavioral antecedents and outcomes of peer victimization. A total of 393 children (188 boys and 205 girls) in the 4th and 5th grades (mean age = 10 years 7 months) participated during each of 2 waves of data collection in this 1-year longitudinal study. Results indicated that teacher-reported internalizing and externalizing behaviors predicted increases in peer-reported victimization, but the relation of internalizing behaviors to increases in victimization was attenuated for children with a protective friendship. Victimization predicted increases in internalizing and externalizing behaviors but only for children without a mutual best friendship. Results highlight the importance of peer friendships in preventing an escalating cycle of peer abuse.

The roles of social withdrawal, peer rejection, and victimization by peers in predicting loneliness and depressed mood in childhood

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relative contributions of social withdrawal, peer rejection, and victimization by peers in predicting feelings of loneliness and depressed mood over time. According to the proposed model, the feelings of loneliness associated with social withdrawal are mediated by the negative peer experiences (negative peer status and peer victimization) to which withdrawn children are exposed. In predicting depressed mood over time, it was further hypothesized that self-reported loneliness ultimately mediates the subsequent depressed mood associated with withdrawal and negative peer experiences. The study was conducted across 2 consecutive years (Time 1 and Time 2), with children each year nominating peers for peer status, social withdrawal, and victimization measures, and completing self-report measures of loneliness and depressed mood. Fourth- and fifth-grade children participated at Time 1, and children that remained in the same school were again evaluated at Time 2 ( N = 567). A series of regression analyses indicated that the postulated sequence of mediations adequately represented the pattern of longitudinal associations between the variables, as well as their pattern of change over time. The contribution of social withdrawal to the prediction of subsequent loneliness was accounted for by the expected pattern of mediations of negative peer experiences. Self-reported loneliness ultimately mediated the subsequent depressed mood associated with withdrawal and negative peer experiences.

What aspects of peer relationships are impaired in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?

Participants included 165 children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; 130 boys, 35 girls) and their 1,298 same-sex classmates (1,026 boys, 272 girls) who served as raters. For each child with ADHD, a child of the same sex was randomly selected from the same classroom to serve as a comparison child, which yielded 165 dyads. Consistent with predictions, contrasted with the comparison children, those with ADHD were lower on social preference, higher on social impact, less well liked, and more often in the rejected social status category; they also had fewer dyadic friends. When liking ratings that children made versus received were examined, children with ADHD had less positive imbalance and greater negative imbalance relative to comparison children. Analyses that considered the types of peers who chose children with ADHD as friends or nonfriends demonstrated that children with ADHD were nominated as nonfriends by children of higher social preference and who were better liked by others.

Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Functioning of Children With Cancer

Objective. It was hypothesized that children with cancer would have more social problems and difficulties with emotional well-being than case control, same race/gender, similarly aged classmates. Study Design. Using a case controlled design, children with any type of cancer requiring chemotherapy except brain tumors (n = 76), currently receiving chemotherapy, ages 8 to 15, were compared with case control classroom peers (n = 76). Peer relationships, emotional well-being, and behavior were evaluated based on peer, teacher, parent, and self-report, and were compared using analysis of variance and structural equation modeling. Results. Relative to case controls, children with cancer were perceived by teachers as being more sociable; by teachers and peers as being less aggressive; and by peers as having greater social acceptance. Measures of depression, anxiety, loneliness, and self-concept showed no significant differences, except children with cancer reported significantly lower satisfaction with current athletic competence. There were also no significant differences in mother or father perceptions of behavioral problems, emotional well-being, or social functioning. Scores on all standardized measures were in the normal range for both groups. Comparisons of the correlation matrices of children with cancer and to the correlation matrix of the comparison children using structural equation modeling suggested they were not significantly different. Conclusions. Children with cancer currently receiving chemotherapy were remarkably similar to case controls on measures of emotional well-being and better on several dimensions of social functioning. These findings are not supportive of disability/stress models of childhood chronic illness and suggest considerable psychologic hardiness.

Interpersonal influence and disordered eating behaviors in adolescent girls: The role of peer modeling, social reinforcement, and body-related teasing

This study investigated the association between interpersonal relationships, eating behaviors, and body esteem in a sample of adolescent girls. Participants included 876 girls who completed questionnaires regarding body esteem, eating behavior, peer pressure, and interpersonal relationships. Peer pressure was a strong predictor of eating behavior and body esteem after controlling for interpersonal variables. High externalized self-perceptions, self-reported teasing, and attributions about the importance of weight and shape for popularity and dating were important predictors of both body esteem and eating behavior. Also, girls who were nominated as popular by peers were more likely to engage in disordered eating and have lower body esteem. Results highlight the need for eating disorder prevention at the level of the peer group. Programs should focus on decreasing pressure to be thin, acceptance by peers for attributes other than appearance, and combating weight- and shape-related teasing within the school system.

Peer-assessed outcomes in the multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Peer-assessed outcomes were examined at the end of treatment (14 months after study entry) for 285 children (226 boys, 59 girls) with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who were rated by their classmates (2,232 classmates total) using peer sociometric procedures. All children with ADHD were participants in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD (MTA). Treatment groups were compared using the orthogonal treatment contrasts that accounted for the largest amount of variance in prior MTA outcome analyses: Medication Management + Combined Treatment versus Behavior Therapy + Community Care; Medication Management versus Combined Treatment; Behavior Therapy versus Community Care. There was little evidence of superiority of any of the treatments for the peer-assessed outcomes studied, although the limited evidence that emerged favored treatments involving medication management. Post hoc analyses were used to examine whether any of the four treatment groups yielded normalized peer relationships relative to randomly selected-classmates. Results indicated that children from all groups remained significantly impaired in their peer relationships.

Stability and Change in Peer Relationships During the Transition to Middle-Level School

In this short-term longitudinal study, Canadian young adolescents’ peer relationships were assessed as students moved from Grade 6 in small elementary schools to Grade 7 in a middle-level school offering Grades 7 through 12. Sociometric nominations were conducted in May of Grade 6, monthly during the fall term, and in May of Grade 7. Peer rejection was stable; peer acceptance was less stable during the transition than subsequently. Girls experienced greater instability in reciprocated friendships than did boys, although girls and boys had similar numbers of reciprocated friendships overall. During the fall term of Grade 7, students lost old reciprocated friendships and formed new reciprocated friendships with previously unfamiliar peers. Girls were more likely than boys to nominate previously unfamiliar peers as friends. Girls from the large elementary school, as compared with other girls, established reciprocated friendships with peers who were unfamiliar from elementary school earlier in the fall term.

Understanding Adolescent Worry: The Application of a Cognitive Model

The relationship between worry and 4 cognitive variables, intolerance of uncertainty, positive beliefs about worry, negative problem orientation, and cognitive avoidance, was examined in an adolescent sample of 528 boys and girls aged 14–18. The participants completed questionnaires assessing worry, somatic anxiety symptoms, and the variables mentioned above. The results show that (a) intolerance of uncertainty, positive beliefs about worry, and negative problem orientation each account for a significant amount of variance in adolescent worry scores in the multiple regression, and (b) the discriminant function derived from the 4 variables is effective in classifying moderate and high worriers into their respective groups (72.8% correct classification). Furthermore, analyses demonstrate that intolerance of uncertainty has the strongest association with worry scores and is the most important variable in discriminating between moderate and high adolescent worriers. These results suggest that intolerance of uncertainty plays a key role in our understanding of adolescent worry.

A Developmental Guide to the Organisation of Close Relationships

A developmental guide to close relationships is presented. Parent-child, sibling, friend, and romantic relationships are described along dimensions that address permanence, power, and gender. These dimensions describe relationship differences in organisational principles that encompass internal representations, social understanding, and interpersonal experiences. The concept of domain specificity is borrowed from cognitive development to address the shifting developmental dynamics of close relationships. Distinct relationships are organised around distinct socialisation tasks, so each relationship requires its own organisational system. As a consequence, different principles guide different relationships, and these organisational principles change with development.