William Prychodko

Immunodiffusion systematics of the primates. III. The strepsirhini.

Immunodiffusion comparisons have been run using 26 antisera including seven made to strepsirhine species. Spur size data resulting from these comparisons have been analyzed by computer and depict Strepsirhini as a monophyletic group within Primates including Lemuriformes and Lorisiformes. Cheirogaleidae is retained with Lemuriformes. Indriidae rather than Cheirogaleidae is depicted as closer to Lemur. Evidence is presented indicating that Lorisiformes is composed of three groups rather than two as in traditional classifications. The three groups, which are considered here to diverage at a family level, are Galagidae, Lorisidae, and Perodicticidae.

Immunodiffusion Evidence on the Phylogeny of the Primates

All modern classifications of the Primates are based to one degree or another on concepts concerning the phylogeny of the order. The widely used approach of Simpson (1945) in emphasizing grades of evolutionary development divides the Primates into suborders Prosimii and Anthropoidea. Prosimii consists of small-brained primates arranged serially into the infraorders Lemuriformes (Malagasy lemurs), Lorisiformes (lorises), and Tarsiiformes (tarsiers). Tree shrews can also be included at the base of Prosimii either as the first taxon in Lemuriformes or as the separate infraorder Tupaiiformes. In turn, Anthropoidea consists of large-brained primates arranged into the superfamilies Ceboidea (New World monkeys), Cercopithecoidea (Old World monkeys), and Hominoidea (the manlike apes and man). In this scheme, Anthropoidea is the younger of the two suborders, and any fossil primates considered to be ances¬tral to Anthropoidea are placed in Prosimii if they show small brains and other primitive features. To the extent that the anthropoid grade was reached independendy in different lineages, Simpson’s Prosimii and Anthropoidea are both polyphyletic assemblages.

Distribution of the electrophoretic variants of serum alpha1-antitrypsin in six species of the macaques

Individual variations ofα1-antitrypsin of the macaques were investigated by means of starch gel electrophoresis. The material comprised a total of 1,084 plasma samples taken from six species, namely,Macaca irus, mulatta, cyclopis, nemestrina, speciosa, andfuscata, including several geographical groups. At least ten phenotypes which were assumed in analogy to human Pi-system to be under genetic control of five codominant alleles tentatively denoted byPiMacA, B, C, D, Ewere identified. It was considered that these alleles are commonly possessed by different macaque species. A marked difference in the distribution of allele frequencies was found both within and between species groups. Several aspects of this new polymorphic variation in the macaques were discussed with special reference to the geographical distribution of the alleles and the origins of the Japanese macaque,M. fuscata.

Starch-gel electrophoretic variants of erythrocyte 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase in asian macaques

Five alleles with eight electrophoretic phenotypes of 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase were found in 1,195 blood samples from fourteen populations of nine macaque species.Macaca fascicularis from Malaya showed the most polymorphism, with three Pgd alleles resulting in five phenotypes.Macaca mulatta, M. speciosa, M. nemestrina, andM. cyclopis had two alleles each (although the last two species showed a high percentage of homozygosity). The remaining four species (M. fuscata, M. radiata, M. maura, andM. nigra) were homozygous for the Pgda allele. The predominance of Pgda was observed in all macaque species, exceptM. speciosa which showed a high (57%) frequency of Pgdd. The distinctive position ofM. speciosa with regard to 6PGD variants parallels observations that indicate that this species carries transferrin and carbonic anhydrase I alleles in different frequencies from those of the other macaque species. Other similarities between the patterns of transferrin and 6PGD variations include a tendency toward homozygosity at the Pgd locus in the insular macaque forms. However, in this case only the Pgda allele is involved, while some variation was found in the transferrin alleles fixed by the founder effect in the insular macaques.

An Immunological Examination of the Systematics of Tupaioidea

The taxonomic position of Tupaioidea with respect to the order Primates and the remainder of Mammalia has been examined using an immunodiffusion technique in trefoil Ouchterlony plates. Antisera were made in rabbits to blood plasma proteins of six of the nine tree shrew species used in comparisons. Numerous non-tupaiid species were also included in experiments with these antisera. Computer analysis of the results of these comparisons indicate the existence of Tupaioidea as a distinct order, which is related to Primates and Dermoptera (flying lemurs). No similarity between Tupaioidea and Macroscelidea (elephant shrews) was observed. The members of the genus Tupaia , which were examined appeared to belong to two subgenera. Subgenus Tupaia included T. glis, T. chinensis, T. belangeri , and T. longipes , whereas subgenus Lyonogale included T. montana, T minor , and T. palawanensis , in addition to T. tana , which is generally considered to belong to this subgenus.

An analysis of macaque systematics using gene frequency data

Abstract Macaque gene frequencies for seven polymorphic protein systems are employed to generate dendrograms via two algorithms. The frequency data employed are drawn from 14 populations of macaques representing nine species. The two algorithms are the unweighted pair group method and an iterative program based on the additive hypothesis. The topologies generated by the two approaches are quite similar. The one major difference, involving M. fuscata, is investigated in detail. As measured by our index of dissimilarity (ID) conspecific populations of M. nemestrina, M. mulatta and M. fascicularis are closely related. Often the ID values separating conspecific groups are in agreement with expectations based on geographic considerations. Interspecific comparisons involving M. mulatta and M. fascicularis also exhibit clinal variation. M. cyclopis and M. fuscata show a particularly strong relationship to M. mulatta. This cluster of three species is closely related to M. fascicularis. M. speciosa, on the other hand, appears to be the most divergent of the species analyzed. The results are considered in light of previous thoughts about macaque systematics based on morphological characteristics.

MOLECULAR SYSTEMATICS AND CLINAL VARIATION IN MACAQUES

ABSTRACT . Gene frequency data were gathered on seven genetic loci from 17 populations of ten species of macaques from known geographic areas. The data were analyzed via two computer methods, each generating dendrograms depicting phylogenetic relationships. These relationships are discussed in terms of the traditional taxonomy of macaques. M. fasciculariS, M. mulatta, M. Cyctopis and M. fuscata form a closely related assemblage. M. speeiosa , the Celebes and pig-tailed macaques are the most divergent groups. The Celebes populations are joined together and form an assemblage with the M. nemestrina groups, a geographically reasonable union. Clinal patterns of genetic variation suggest the operation of natural selection.

Hemoglobin variation in macaques

A total of 1,333 hemolysates obtained from six different species of macaques,M. fuscata, M. cyclopis, M. mulatta, M. speciosa, M. nemestrina, andM. irus, were examined by starch gel electrophoresis. Three major hemoglobins, tentatively designated S, F, and P, and one minor component were found among the samples, in which P and a minor component were observed only in some samples ofM. irus. The hemoglobin types observed and their incidence in each species agreed, on the whole, with results reported by earlier workers. However, in addition to marked differences among macaque species, there existed striking geographical differences in the distribution of hemoglobin components within the same species. The distribution of hemoglobin types observed among the species are presented, together with the results of the determination of hemoglobin concentration in a two-band type and those of the alkali-resistant pigment of the macaques.

Molecular Evidence for the Affinities of Tupaiidae

The basic method for deducing relationships among living organisms of any type is by assessing the degree of difference and similarity in various characters common to the groups under consideration. Traditionally, these characters have been morphological in nature. As a result, most students of systematic biology and evolution have been anatomists and paleontologists. It was largely through the efforts of these investigators that modern taxonomy has been brought to its present state. However, as is so often the case among investigators in any science, there have been disagreements both in conclusions derived from comparative work and in taxonomies developed from this work.

Species and geographic distribution patterns of the macaque prealbumin polymorphism

A polymorphism for thyroxine-binding prealbumin (TBPA) is investigated in regards to mode of inheritance as well as distribution within eight species of macaques from known geographic areas. It is found that an electrophoretically slow variant seems to be due to a codominant allele present in six of the species tested.While the slow form has a frequency of less than 30% in most other populations tested, it is fixed at 100% in the Japanese macaques (M. fuscata). The locus is inHardy-Weinberg equilibrium in all populations however. Since TBPA is intimately related to thyroxine levels in the blood the polymorphism may be an adaptation to cold environments.