William S. Ryan

Parental autonomy support and discrepancies between implicit and explicit sexual identities: Dynamics of self-acceptance and defense

When individuals grow up with autonomy-thwarting parents, they may be prevented from exploring internally endorsed values and identities and as a result shut out aspects of the self perceived to be unacceptable. Given the stigmatization of homosexuality, individuals perceiving low autonomy support from parents may be especially motivated to conceal same-sex sexual attraction, leading to defensive processes such as reaction formation. Four studies tested a model wherein perceived parental autonomy support is associated with lower discrepancies between self-reported sexual orientation and implicit sexual orientation (assessed with a reaction time task). These indices interacted to predict anti-gay responding indicative of reaction formation. Studies 2-4 showed that an implicit/explicit discrepancy was particularly pronounced in participants who experienced their fathers as both low in autonomy support and homophobic, though results were inconsistent for mothers. Findings of Study 3 suggested contingent self-esteem as a link between parenting styles and discrepancies in sexual orientation measures.

Coming Out as Lesbian, Gay, or Bisexual: The Lasting Impact of Initial Disclosure Experiences

Though previous research indicates that lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals may benefit from disclosing their sexual identity, or coming out, doing so also carries with it significant risks due to its stigmatized status. LGB individuals (N = 108) were surveyed regarding their initial experiences coming out, including the first person to whom they disclosed, their mother, father, and best friend. Results indicated that negative reactions to disclosure were associated with higher depression and lower self-esteem, whereas positive reactions did not explain additional variance in well-being. Autonomy need satisfaction following disclosure mediated the relation between negative reactions and lower well-being. Discussion focuses on the coming out process and the importance of autonomy support in identity integration and well-being.

Simultaneous acquisition of functional magnetic resonance images and impedance cardiography.

While simultaneous acquisition of electrocardiography (ECG) data during MRI is a widely used clinical technique, the effects of the MRI environment on impedance cardiography (ICG) data have not been characterized. We collected echo planar MRI scans while simultaneously recording ECG and thoracic impedance using carbon fiber electrodes and customized amplifiers. Here, we show that the key changes in impedance (dZ/dt) and features of the ECG waveforms are not obstructed during MRI. We present a method for ensemble averaging ICG/ECG signals collected during MRI and show that it performs comparably with signals collected outside the MRI environment. These results indicate that ICG can be used during MRI to measure stroke volume, cardiac output, preejection period, and left ventricular ejection time.

Measures of Attitudes towards Sexual Orientation: Heterosexism, Homophobia, and Internalized Stigma

The past 40 years have witnessed rapid growth in the study of sexual orientation and identity. Within psychology, this has been accompanied by an ever-growing number of measures designed to assess sexual orientation related constructs. This chapter reviews the most recent and widely employed self-report instruments. These measures diversely assess attitudes of heterosexual individuals toward Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual targets as well as the attitudes of LGB individuals toward their own sexual orientation. Though these assessments all tap self-reported anti-LGB bias, they differ widely in the definition, hypothesized components, and labeling of the construct of interest. The goal of this chapter is to provide information about these important variations in the operationalization of anti-LGB bias and the psychometric quality of resulting tests in a centralized location.

Autonomy Support as Acceptance for Disclosing and Developing a Healthy Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual or Transgendered Identity

Disclosing a lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender (LGBT) identity to others, or coming out, yields mental health benefits, but it can carry the risk of stigmatization, rejection and even violence. We use a self-determination theory (SDT; Ryan RM, Deci EL. Am Psychol 55:68–78, 2000) framework to understand how relationships impact coming out and identity-development processes. We review evidence that autonomy support, or interpersonal acceptance and encouragement for authentic self-expression, conveys acceptance and safety in relationships, and fosters self-disclosure and acceptance of oneself as LGBT. We conclude by proposing some future directions for this line of inquiry, highlighting the importance of furthering research in this area.

Autonomy support for conflictual and stigmatized identities: Effects on ownership and psychological health.

Important others’ perceptions influence self-perceptions. This presents a challenge for the critical developmental task of integrating all aspects of identity, as identities that are devalued or stigmatized by society are harder to own than valued ones. Across 3 studies, we tested the idea that conflictual or stigmatized identities are harder to own, or integrate into the self, than are nonconflictual ones, and we examine how receiving autonomy support for an identity—support for authentic identity exploration and expression—can facilitate ownership of that identity. Cross-sectional (n = 543), experience-sampling (n = 66), and experimental methods (n = 209) tested the dynamics of autonomy-supportive others on identity ownership. Data from these studies converge to show that conflictual identities are indeed harder to own than nonconflictual ones, but that autonomy support predicts greater ownership and psychological health, especially for conflictual identities. In the final study, we replicate these dynamics in 3 identities stigmatized by society: sexual minority, ethnic minority, and gender minority identities. Findings reveal the importance of integrating all aspects of identity—particularly those that are conflictual or stigmatized—into one’s self-concept. We consider implications for counseling and clinical practice, as well as broadly for the psychological health of stigmatized individuals.

Quantifying rapid changes in cardiovascular state with a moving ensemble average

MEAP, the moving ensemble analysis pipeline, is a new open-source tool designed to perform multisubject preprocessing and analysis of cardiovascular data, including electrocardiogram (ECG), impedance cardiogram (ICG), and continuous blood pressure (BP). In addition to traditional ensemble averaging, MEAP implements a moving ensemble averaging method that allows for the continuous estimation of indices related to cardiovascular state, including cardiac output, preejection period, heart rate variability, and total peripheral resistance, among others. Here, we define the moving ensemble technique mathematically, highlighting its differences from fixed-window ensemble averaging. We describe MEAPs interface and features for signal processing, artifact correction, and cardiovascular-based fMRI analysis. We demonstrate the accuracy of MEAPs novel B point detection algorithm on a large collection of hand-labeled ICG waveforms. As a proof of concept, two subjects completed a series of four physical and cognitive tasks (cold pressor, Valsalva maneuver, video game, random dot kinetogram) on 3 separate days while ECG, ICG, and BP were recorded. Critically, the moving ensemble method reliably captures the rapid cyclical cardiovascular changes related to the baroreflex during the Valsalva maneuver and the classic cold pressor response. Cardiovascular measures were seen to vary considerably within repetitions of the same cognitive task for each individual, suggesting that a carefully designed paradigm could be used to capture fast-acting event-related changes in cardiovascular state.

Autonomous orientation predicts longevity: New findings from the Nun Study

Abstract Objective Work on longevity has found protective social, cognitive, and emotional factors, but to date we have little understanding of the impact of motivational dynamics. Autonomy orientation, or stable patterns of self‐regulation, is theorized to be a protective factor for long‐term mental and physical health (Ryan & Deci, 2017), and it is therefore a prime candidate for examining how stable psychosocial factors are linked to longevity, or life expectancy. Method Essays written in the 1930s by participants in the Nun Study were coded for indicators of an autonomy orientation. These were selected in line with an extensive theoretical literature based in self‐determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Essays were coded for the propensity for choice in action, susceptibility to pressure, self‐reflection, integration of experiences, and parental support for autonomy. These coded variables were used to predict age of death. Results Using 176 codable essays provided by now‐deceased participants, linear regression analyses revealed that choiceful behavior, self‐reflection, and parent autonomy support predicted age of death. Participants who demonstrated these stable and beneficial motivational characteristics lived longer. Conclusions Personality constructs reflecting a healthy form of self‐regulation are associated with long‐term health. Implications for health interventions are discussed.