William Valliere

Crowding Norms: Alternative Measurement Approaches

Research on crowding-related standards of quality increasingly has focused on personal and social norms. Several norm-measurement approaches have been developed. This study compares and evaluates three issues related to alternative norm measurement approaches: numerical versus visual approach, long versus short question format, and evaluative dimension. Study data are drawn from a multiphase program of research on crowding on the carriage roads of Acadia National Park, Maine. Differences in crowding norms developed from alternative measurement approaches are described and discussed. Study findings suggest that commonly used norm-measurement approaches may lead to crowding-related standards of quality that are overly conservative.

Values, Ethics, and Attitudes Toward National Forest Management: An Empirical Study

This study measures environmental values and ethics and explores their relation ships to attitudes toward national forest management. The principal research methods were literature review and a survey of Vermont residents concerning man agement of the Green Mountain National Forest. Descriptive findings suggest respondents (1) favor nonmaterial values of national forests, (2) subscribe to a diversity of environmental ethics, including anthropocentric and bio-/ecocentric, and (3) support emerging concepts of ecosystem management. Environmental values and ethics explain approximately 60% of the variation in attitudes toward national forest management.

Coping in outdoor recreation: Causes and consequences of crowding and conflict among community residents

Displacement, product shift, and rationalization are coping mechanisms that can be adopted in response to crowding and conflict in outdoor recreation. Using survey methods, this study found relatively high levels of adoption of coping mechanisms by residents of communities in and around Acadia National Park, Maine in response to perceived increases in 1) overall recreation use levels, 2) selected recreation activities and 3) selected problem behaviors. While only 7.4% of respondents reported that they no longer use the carriage roads because of the changes in use that have occurred, nearly all respondents (94%) reported adopting one or more behavioral or cognitive coping mechanisms. Study findings suggest that coping may be pervasive in outdoor recreation, that coping includes behavioral and cognitive mechanisms, and that coping is related to perceived changes in both the amount and type of outdoor recreation. High levels of coping as found in this study may be stressful at the individual level, may lead to diminished diversity of outdoor recreation opportunities at the societal level, and suggests that overall “satisfaction” may be a superficial and even misleading measure of quality in outdoor recreation.

Proactive monitoring and adaptive management of social carrying capacity in Arches National Park: an application of computer simulation modeling

Public visits to parks and protected areas continue to increase and may threaten the integrity of natural and cultural resources and the quality of the visitor experience. Scientists and managers have adopted the concept of carrying capacity to address the impacts of visitor use. In the context of outdoor recreation, the social component of carrying capacity refers to the level of visitor use that can be accommodated in parks and protected areas without diminishing the quality of the visitor experience to an unacceptable degree. This study expands and illustrates the use of computer simulation modeling as a tool for proactive monitoring and adaptive management of social carrying capacity at Arches National Park. A travel simulation model of daily visitor use throughout the Parks road and trail network and at selected attraction sites was developed, and simulations were conducted to estimate a daily social carrying capacity for Delicate Arch, an attraction site in Arches National Park, and for the Park as a whole. Further, a series of simulations were conducted to estimate the effect of a mandatory shuttle bus system on daily social carrying capacity of Delicate Arch to illustrate how computer simulation modeling can be used as a tool to facilitate adaptive management of social carrying capacity.

Research to estimate and manage carrying capacity of a tourist attraction: a study of Alcatraz Island.

Carrying capacity has been a long-standing issue in management of parks, outdoor recreation and tourism. Contemporary carrying capacity frameworks rely on formulation of indicators and standards of quality to define and manage carrying capacity. This paper describes a programme of research to support estimation and management of carrying capacity of Alcatraz Island, an historic site within Golden Gate National Recreation Area, California, USA, and a heavily visited tourist attraction. Research included: (1) a survey of visitors to Alcatraz Island to identify indicators and standards of quality for the visitor experience; and (2) development of a computer simulation model of visitor use to estimate maximum daily use levels without violating standards of quality. Study findings are used to estimate a range of carrying capacities for the prison cellhouse and for the island as a whole.

Norm Crystallization: Measurement and Comparative Analysis

Normative theory and methods have become increasingly important in outdoor recreation research and management as an approach to formulating standards of quality in parks and related areas. An important issue associated with this research is the level of agreement or consensus about social norms called crystallization. A new measure, Van der Eijks measure of agreement (A), is proposed and applied in this study. A test of the effect of potential independent variables on crystallization is also applied using a comparative analysis conducted across a number of studies administered in U.S. national parks. Study findings indicate a generally high level of crystallization regarding normative standards of quality and show several independent variables that influence crystallization, though the effects are generally small.

Respondent self-assessment of research on crowding norms in outdoor recreation.

This study explores the validity of measuring crowding norms in outdoor recreation through the use of respondent self-assessment techniques. Review of the literature on crowding norms, and the related topic of contingent valuation, suggests a number of theoretical and methodological issues that can influence validity. Based on this literature review, measures of respondent self-assessment of crowding norms research are developed and applied at multiple sites within three national parks. Study findings suggest that most respondents are confident in their ability to understand and answer questions on crowding norms, and support the use of such data by park managers. Few differences in crowding norms were found between respondents who were confident in their answers and those who were less confident. These findings, along with findings from other, related studies, offer some support for the validity of measures of crowding norms in outdoor recreation, and suggest research approaches to maximize validity.

Estimating day use social carrying capacity in Yosemite National Park.

Abstract Estimating Day Use Social Carrying Capacity in Yosemite National Park Carrying capacity has been a long‐standing issue in management of parks and outdoor recreation. Contemporary carrying capacity frameworks rely on formulation of indicators and standards of quality of the recreation experience to define and manage carrying capacity. This paper describes a program of research to support application of carrying capacity to Yosemite Valley, the scenic heart of Yosemite National Park, USA. Research included (1) a series of visitor surveys at selected sites within Yosemite Valley to identify indicators and standards of quality, (2) development of computer simulation models of visitor use at study sites to estimate maximum daily use levels without violating standards of quality, and (3) a park exit survey to determine the percentage of day users at study sites. Study findings are used to estimate a range of day use carrying capacities at study sites and for Yosemite Valley as a whole.

Cultural Influence on Crowding Norms in Outdoor Recreation: A Comparative Analysis of Visitors to National Parks in Turkey and the United States

Formulation of standards of quality in parks and outdoor recreation can be guided by normative theory and related empirical methods. We apply this approach to measure the acceptability of a range of use levels in national parks in Turkey and the United States. Using statistical methods for comparing norm curves across contexts, we find significant differences among Americans, British, and Turkish respondents. In particular, American and British respondents were substantially less tolerant of seeing other visitors and demonstrated higher norm intensity than Turkish respondents. We discuss the role of culture in explaining these findings, paying particular attention to Turkey as a traditional “contact culture” and the conventional emphasis on solitude and escape in American environmental history and policy. We conclude with a number of recommendations to stimulate more research on the relationship between culture and outdoor recreation.

Normative standards for wildlife viewing in parks and protected areas

With increasing public interest in wildlife watching, there is a need to develop methods to better inform management of quality viewing opportunities. In this study, normative methods using indicators and standards of quality are applied at two diverse parks/protected areas: a popular national park in Alaska and a lesser known wildlife refuge in New Hampshire. Three potential indicators of quality are identified that can be used to help define and manage wildlife viewing opportunities, and a range of potential standards of quality are developed for these indicator variables. In general, normative standards of visitors to the two study areas were salient and moderately to highly crystallized. Furthermore, study findings indicate that visitors are currently experiencing high-quality wildlife viewing at both sites. Wildlife viewing indicators and standards developed at these diverse study locations may be applicable at a wide range of parks and protected areas.