Willy Bertiger

A Technical Description of Atmospheric Sounding by GPS Occultation

Abstract In recent years, the global positioning system (GPS) has been exploited via radio occultation techniques to obtain profiles of refractivity, temperature, pressure and water vapor in the neutral atmosphere and electron density in the ionosphere. The GPS/MET experiment, which placed a GPS receiver in a low-Earth orbit, provided a wealth of data which was used to test this concept and the accuracy of the retrievals. Several investigations have already demonstrated that the retrieval accuracies obtained with GPS/MET is already comparable, if not better, than the more traditional atmospheric sensing techniques (e.g., radiosondes). Even though the concept of atmospheric profiling via radio occultation is quite a simple one, care must be taken to separate the numerous factors that can affect the occulted signal. These include the motion of the satellites, clock drifts, relativistic effects, the separation of the ionosphere and the neutral atmosphere, and the contribution of the upper atmosphere where sensitivity of the GPS signal is weak. In addition, care must be taken to use proper boundary conditions, use proper smoothing intervals and interpolation schemes to avoid retrieving artificial atmospheric structures, and most importantly detect and correct phase measurement errors introduced by sharp refractivity gradients in the atmosphere. This work describes in some detail the several steps involved in processing such data. In particular, it describes a system that was developed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and used to process the GPS/MET data. Several examples of retrieved refractivity, temperature and water vapor profiles are shown and compared to analyses from the European Center for Medium-range Weather Forecast (ECMWF). Statistical comparisons of GPS/MET and ECMWF temperatures for data collected during June 21–July 4, 1995, indicate that differences are of order 1– 2 K at northern latitudes where the ECMWF analyses are most accurate.

Initial Results of Radio Occultation Observations of Earth's Atmosphere Using the Global Positioning System

Recent radio occultation measurements using Global Positioning System satellite transmitters and an orbiting receiver have provided a globally distributed set of high-resolution atmospheric profiles, suggesting that the technique may make a significant contribution to global change and weather prediction programs. Biases in occultation temperatures relative to radiosonde and model data are about 1 kelvin or less in the tropics and are generally less than 0.5 kelvin at higher latitudes. Data quality is sufficient to quantify significant model errors in remote regions. Temperature profiles also reveal either an equatorial Rossby-gravity or an inertio-gravity wave. Such waves provide a fundamental source of momentum for the stratospheric circulation.

GPS precise tracking of TOPEX/POSEIDON: Results and implications

A reduced dynamic filtering strategy that exploits the unique geometric strength of the Global Positioning System(GPS) to minimize the effects of force model errors has yielded orbit solutions for TOPEX/POSEIDON which appear accurate to better than 3 cm (1 σ) in the radial component. Reduction of force model error also reduces the geographic correlation of the orbit error. With a traditional dynamic approach, GPS yields radial orbit accuracies of 4–5 cm, comparable to the accuracy delivered by satellite laser ranging and the Doppler orbitography and radio positioning integrated by satellite (DORIS) tracking system. A portion of the dynamic orbit error is in the Joint Gravity Model-2 (JGM-2); GPS data from TOPEX/POSEIDON can readily reveal that error and have been used to improve the gravity model.

First assessment of GPS‐based reduced dynamic orbit determination on TOPEX/Poseidon

The reduced dynamic GPS tracking technique has been applied for the first time as part of the GPS experiment on TOPEX/Poseidon. This technique employs local geometric position corrections to reduce orbit errors caused by the mismodeling of satellite forces. Results for a 29-day interval in early 1993 are evaluated through postfit residuals and formal errors, comparison with GPS and laser/DORIS dynamic solutions, comparisons on 6-hr overlaps of adjacent 30-hr data arcs, altimetry closure and crossover analysis. Reduced dynamic orbits yield slightly better crossover agreement than other techniques and appear to be accurate in altitude to about 3 cm RMS.

One-Centimeter Orbit Determination for Jason-1: New GPS-Based Strategies

The U.S./French Jason-1 satellite is carrying a state-of-the-art GPS receiver to support precise orbit determination (POD) requirements. The performance of the Jason-1 “BlackJack” GPS receiver was strongly reflected in early POD results from the mission, enabling radial accuracies of 1–2 cm soon after the satellites 2001 launch. We have made further advances in the GPS-based POD for Jason-1, most notably in describing the phase center variations of the on-board GPS antenna. We have also adopted new geopotential models from the Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE). The new strategies have enabled us to better exploit the unique contributions of the BlackJack GPS tracking data in the POD process. Results of both internal and external (e.g., laser ranging) comparisons indicate that orbit accuracies of 1 cm (radial RMS) are being achieved for Jason-1 using GPS data alone.

Precision Orbit Determination Standards for the Jason Series of Altimeter Missions

The Jason-1 altimeter satellite and its follow-on mission Jason-2/OSTM were launched in December 2001 and June 2008, respectively, to provide the scientific community with a high-accuracy continuous record of observations of the ocean surface topography. Both missions carry on board three state-of-the-art tracking systems (DORIS, GPS, SLR) to meet the requirement of better-than-1.5 cm radial accuracy for the operational orbit included in the geophysical data record (GDR) product. This article outlines the common set of models and processing techniques applied to both Jason reprocessed and operational orbits included in version C of the GDR, referred to as GDR-C standards for precision orbit determination (POD), and describes the systematic components of the radial error budget that are of most interest for the altimeter data analysts. The nonsystematic component of the error budget, quantified by intercomparison of orbits using similar models or with reduced dependency on the dynamic models, is generally at or below 7 mm RMS (root-mean-square). In particular, the average daily RMS of the radial difference between the JPL and CNES reduced-dynamic orbits on Jason-2 is below 6 mm. Concerning the dynamic models employed, the principal contributors to residual systematic differences appear to be the time varying gravity and solar radiation pressure, resulting in geographically correlated periodic signals that have amplitudes at the few-mm level. Concerning the drifts of the orbits along the North/South direction, all solutions agree to better than the 1 mm/year level.

Topex/Jason combined GPS/DORIS orbit determination in the tandem phase

Abstract In December 2001, the Jason-1 satellite was launched to extend the long-term success of the TOPEX/POSEIDON (T/P) oceanographic mission. The goals for the Jason-1 mission represent both a significant challenge and a rare opportunity for precise orbit determination (POD) analysts. Like its predecessor, Jason-1 carries three types of POD systems: a GPS receiver, a DORIS receiver and a laser retro-reflector. In view of the 1-cm goal for radial orbit accuracy, several major improvements have been made to the POD systems: 1) the GPS “BlackJack” TurboRogue Space Receiver (TRSR) tracks up to 12 GPS spacecraft using advanced codeless tracking techniques; 2) a newly developed DORIS receiver can track two ground beacons simultaneously with lower noise. In addition, the satellite itself features more straightforward attitude behavior, and a symmetric shape, simplifying the orbit determination models compared to T/P. On the other hand, the area-to-mass ratio for Jason-1 is larger, implying larger potential surface-force errors. This paper presents Jason-1 POD results obtained at JPL using the GIPSY-OASIS II (GOA) software package. Results from standard tests (orbit overlaps, laser control points) suggest that 1 to 2 cm radial orbit precision is already being achieved using the JPL reduced-dynamic estimation approach. We also report new DORIS POD strategies that make full profit of the additional number of common DORIS observations due to the T/P·Jason-1 tandem mode of orbit as well the additional dual-channel capability of the upgraded JASON receiver (allowing simultaneous tracking of two ground stations). New information on the satellites time scale is availed through this new estimation strategy. Results show that a significant improvement to DORIS-based orbits could be gained using this strategy. Building on these results, we have extended the GIPSY/OASIS 11 software capability to more fully exploit the combined benefit of both GPS and DORIS measurements from T/P and Jason-1 in their preliminary tandem mode. POD test results are used to demonstrate the accuracy of these orbits and to compare results in different cases: DORIS-alone, and GPS and DORIS together in both single- and multi-satellite modes. On the other, we have demonstrated and explained an anomalous behavior of the on-board oscillator when crossing the South Atlantic Anomaly region. Finally, plans for future software enhancements, processing strategies and modeling improvements are presented.

Sub-Centimeter Precision Orbit Determination with GPS for Ocean Altimetry

We assess the accuracy of JPLs estimated OSTM/Jason-2 Global Positioning System (GPS)-determined orbits based on residuals to independent satellite laser ranging (SLR) data, compared with orbits produced by different software from different data (SLR/DORIS), Geophysical Data Record version C (GDR-C) orbits, and altimeter crossover tests. All of these tests are consistent with sub-cm radial accuracy: high elevation SLR residual standard deviation lies at 6.8 mm, RMS differences from GDR-C in the radial component typically fall below a cm, and altimeter crossovers from JPL orbits have a variance 89 mm2 smaller than altimeter crossovers from GDR-C orbits. Although RMS differences between radial components of different orbit solutions typically lie below a cm, we observe systematic dependences on both time and geography. The improved precision and accuracy of JPLs OSTM/Jason-2 orbit solutions rely on a new algorithm for applying constraints to integer carrier phase ambiguities. This algorithm is sufficiently robust to improve solutions despite half-cycle carrier phase identification issues in OSTM/Jason-2s BlackJack receiver. Although Jason-1 receiver performance differs, our algorithm should extend to Jason-1 processing (during the time span of nominal GPS receiver operations).

The Active Temperature, Ozone and Moisture Microwave Spectrometer (ATOMMS)

The Active Temperature, Ozone and Moisture Microwave Spectrometer (ATOMMS) is designed to observe Earth’s climate. It extends and overcomes several limitations of the GPS radio occultation capabilities by simultaneously measuring atmospheric bending and absorption at frequencies approximately 10 and 100 times higher than GPS. This paper summarizes several important conceptual improvements to ATOMMS made since OPAC-1 including deriving the hydrostatic upper boundary condition directly from the ATOMMS observations, our much improved understanding of the impact of turbulence and its mitigation, and a new approach to deriving atmospheric profiles in the presence of inhomogeneous liquid water clouds. ATOMMS performance significantly exceeds that of radiometric sounders in terms of precision and vertical resolution and degrades only slightly in the presence of clouds and it does so independently of models. Our aircraft-to-aircraft occultation demonstration of ATOMMS performance will begin in 2009 representing a major step towards an orbiting observing system.

Demonstration of sub-meter GPS orbit determination and 1.5 parts in 108 three-dimensional baseline accuracy

Differential tracking of theGPS satellites in high-earth orbit provides a powerful relative positioning capability, even when a relatively small continental U.S. fiducial tracking network is used with less than one-third of the fullGPS constellation. To demonstrate this capability, we have determined baselines of up to2000 km in North America by estimating high-accuracyGPS orbits and ground receiver positions simultaneously. The2000 km baselines agree with very long baseline interferometry(VLBI) solutions at the level of1.5 parts in108 and showrms daily repeatability of0.3–2 parts in108. The orbits determined for the most thoroughly trackedGPS satellites are accurate to better than1 m. GPS orbit accuracy was assessed from orbit predictions, comparisons with independent data sets, and the accuracy of the continental baselines determined along with the orbits. The bestGPS orbit strategies included data arcs of at least one week, process noise models for tropospheric fluctuations, estimation ofGPS solar pressure coefficients, and combined processing ofGPS carrier phase and pseudorange data. For data arcs of two weeks, constrained process noise models forGPS dynamic parameters significantly improved the solutions.