Wolfgang Schnotz

Construction and interference in learning from multiple representation

This paper presents an integrated view of learning from verbal and pictorial representations. Learning from these representations is considered as a task oriented process of constructing multiple mental representations. Construction of these representations includes information selection and information organisation, parsing of symbol structures, mapping of analog structures as well as model construction and model inspection. Based on this theoretical view an experiment was conducted to analyse the effects of different kinds of multiple external representations on the structure of mental models. Sixty university students were randomly assigned to one of the three experimental conditions. The text-only group learned the subject matter with a hypertext, whereas the other two groups learned the subject matter with a hypermedium including this hypertext and different kinds of graphics. The findings indicate that the structure of graphics affects the structure of the mental model. They also indicate that presenting graphics is not always beneficial for the acquisition of knowledge. Whereas taskappropriate graphics may support learning, task-inappropriate graphics may interfere with mental model construction.  2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

Commentary: Towards an integrated view of learning from text and visual displays.

Visuo-spatial text adjuncts such as static or animated pictures, geographic maps, thematic maps, graphs, and knowledge maps that have been analyzed in the articles contained in this special issue provide complex pictorial information that complements the verbal information of texts. These spatial text adjuncts are considered as depictive representations that can support communication, thinking, and learning. An essential precondition of this supportive function is that the visuo-spatial displays interact appropriately with human visual perception and the individuals cognitive system, which is characterized by prior knowledge, cognitive abilities, and learning skills. Accordingly, effective learning with visuo-spatial text adjuncts can be fostered by instructional design and by adequate processing strategies, both dependent on sufficient understanding of how the human cognitive system interacts with these displays. Perspectives for further research in this area are provided.

Enabling, Facilitating, and Inhibiting Effects of Animations in Multimedia Learning: Why Reduction of Cognitive Load Can Have Negative Results on Learning

New technologies allow the display of text, static visuals, and animations. Although animations are inherently attractive, they are not always beneficial for learning. Problems may arise especially when animations modify the learners cognitive load in an unintended way. In two learning experiments with 40 and 26 university students, the effects of animated pictures on knowledge acquisition were investigated. Some pictures displayed visual simulations of changes over time, whereas other pictures could be manipulated by learners to represent different states in time. Results showed that manipulation pictures had an enabling function for individuals with high learning prerequisites, whereas simulation pictures had a facilitating function for individuals with low learning prerequisites. However, the facilitating function was not beneficial for learning, because learners were prevented from performing relevant cognitive processes on their own. A careful analysis of the interrelation between different kinds of cognitive load and the process of learning is therefore required.

Individual and co-operative learning with interactive animated pictures

Computer-based multimedia learning environments make it possible to present interactive animated pictures, which can be manipulated for active exploratory learning and which allow the dynamic behavior of complex subject matter to be displayed. Due to the large range of possibilities for exploratory interaction, such learning environments seem well suited for co-operative learning in which different learners analyse the presented subject matter from different perspectives. This paper first describes a theoretical framework for learning from texts and pictures together with an analysis of possible effects of animation and interactivity on knowledge acquisition. It then presents two empirical studies in which knowledge acquisition from interactive animated pictures was compared with knowledge acquisition from static pictures under the conditions of individual learning (Study I) and of cooperative learning (Study II). In Study I, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted in a superior encoding of detail information, but did not facilitate performance of mental simulation tasks. In Study II, learning with interactive animated pictures resulted both in inferior encoding of detail information and poorer results in mental simulations. These findings and the analysis of discourse protocols of subjects’ co-operation suggest that exploratory learning with interactive animated pictures is associated with extraneous cognitive load and that this load can be further increased by the co-ordination demands of co-operative learning. Although animated pictures may provide external support for mental simulations, they do not appear to be generally beneficial for learning, because they can prevent individuals from performing relevant cognitive processes.RésuméLes environnements informatiques d’apprentissage donnent la possibilité de présenter des images interactives animées qui peuvent être manipulées pour un apprentissage actif par exploration et qui permettent de visualiser le fonctionnement dynamique-d’un contenu d’enseignement complexe. Du fait du grand nombre de possibilités d’interactions d’explorations, de tels environnements d’apprentissage semblent bien adaptés pour un apprentissage coopératif dans lequel différents apprenants analysent la matière présentée de différents points de vue. L’acquisition de connaissance à partir d’images interactives animées a été comparée à l’acquisition de connaissance à partir d’images statiques dans des conditions d’apprentissage individuel (première étude) et d’apprentissage coopératif (deuxième étude). Dans la première étude, l’apprentissage avec des images interactives animées a conduit à un encodage supérieur du détail d’information, mais n’a pas facilité les performances dans des tâches de simulation mentale. Dans la seconde étude, l’apprentissage avec des images interactives animées a conduit simultanément à un encodage inférieur du détail d’information et à des résultants médiocres des simulations mentales. Ces résultats et les analyses des protocoles du discours des sujets coopérants suggèrent que l’apprentissage par exploration avec des images interactives animées induit une charge cognitive sur les détails, et que cette charge peut être encoure accrue par les contraintes de coordination liées à l’apprentissage en coopération. Bien que les images animées puissent fournir un support externe aux simulations mentales, elles n’apparaissent pas comme étant en général bénéfiques pour l’apprentissage du fait qu’elles peuvent gêner les individus dans la mise en oeuvre de processus cognitifs pertinents.

Task-dependent Construction of Mental Models as a Basis for Conceptual Change.

Abstract Learning can be seen as a task-oriented process which often requires the reorganization of existing knowledge, usually referred to as conceptual change. This paper describes a theoretical framework for the analysis of conceptual change that considers conceptual knowledge as a generative cognitive tool for the creation of more specific mental representations — propositional symbolic structures and analog mental models. According to this view, conceptual change is based on a task-oriented interaction between these different kinds of mental representations. The assumption is made that it is possible to foster conceptual change by presenting to students well-defined tasks that stimulate the construction of elaborate mental models as well as an intensive interaction between these models and the corresponding propositional representations. In order to test this assumption an empirical study was conducted, in which subjects had to express their prior knowledge about a complex subject matter from the field of geography (time differences on the earth), which contained various conceptual deficits. The subjects were then randomly assigned to different groups who received the same learning material but had to solve different learning tasks requiring differently structured mental models. Afterwards, the subjects were asked to express their knowledge about the subject matter again and were tested for understanding with a comprehension test. The results support the view that a task-oriented interaction between propositional structures and mental models can help learners to evaluate the consistency of their conceptual knowledge. Accordingly, conceptual deficits result in the formation of mental models with an inadequate structure. Such deficits can be detected if the respective model is used in a sufficiently variable way, whereas they can remain unnoticed if it is used in a limited manner.

Semantic scaffolds in hypermedia learning environments

In knowledge acquisition from hypermedia, learners have to orient themselves in a non-linear information space, navigate in this space and build a knowledge structure from the information there. Research on learning from hypermedia has focused primarily on enhancing orientation and navigation, with only minor attention on possibilities for supporting semantic processing. In a first experiment, 98 students from senior high school and university undergraduates learned about a complex subject matter either without or with semantic scaffolds, which were presented either in an obligatory (non-removable) or in an optional mode. High prior knowledge learners profited from adequately used semantic scaffolds, whereas low prior knowledge learners did not. In a second experiment, 53 senior high school students and university undergraduates received the learning material with semantic scaffolds presented either in an obligatory mode (but removable on demand) or in an optional mode. Learners with low prior knowledge performed better with optional presentation. Learners with high prior knowledge performed better with obligatory presentation, which allowed removing scaffolds on demand. Learners generally preferred the optional presentation of learning scaffolds.

Diagnostische Fähigkeiten von Lehrkräften bei der Einschätzung von Schülerleistungen und Aufgabenschwierigkeiten bei Lernmedien mit instruktionalen Bildern

Diagnostische Fahigkeiten von Lehrkraften gelten als wichtige Voraussetzungen fur die adaquate Vorbereitung, Durchfuhrung und Nachbereitung des schulischen Unterrichts. Fur den Unterricht sind wiederum in vielen Fachern Lernmaterialien grundlegend, die Texte mit instruktionalen Bildern enthalten. Vor diesem Hintergrund diente die vorliegende Studie der Untersuchung von zentralen Forschungsfragen zu Niveau und Zusammenhangen der diagnostischen Fahigkeiten von Lehrkraften im Bereich der Text-Bild-Integration, zu moglichen lehrer- bzw. materialseitigen Moderatorvariablen sowie zu Determinanten im diagnostischen Urteilsprozess. Es nahmen 116 Lehrkrafte mit 48 Klassen der Stufen 5 bis 8 unterschiedlicher Schulformen an der Studie teil. Zentrale Ergebnisse waren eine schwache bis moderate Gute der diagnostischen Lehrerurteile bei einer Tendenz zur Unterschatzung der Schulerleistungen, ein heterogenes Befundmuster bezuglich der Zusammenhange mit fachdidaktischem Wissen und Berufserfahrung sowie eine Bedeutung vo...

Einflüsse der Visualisierungsform auf die Konstruktion mentaler Modelle beim Text- und Bildverstehen

Zusammenfassung. Im folgenden Beitrag wird ein integratives Modell des Text- und des Bildverstehens dargestellt. Text- und Bildverstehen werden darin als anforderungsorientierte Konstruktion von de...

Understanding Multimedia Documents

Professionals who use multimedia documents as a tool to communicate concepts will find this a hugely illuminating text. It provides a comprehensive and up to date account of relevant research issues, methodologies and results in the area of multimedia comprehension. More specifically, the book draws connections between cognitive research, instructional strategies and design methodologies. It includes theoretical reviews, discussions of research techniques, ad original experimental contributions. The book highlights essential aspects of current theories, and trends for future research on the use of multimedia documents.

Mentale Modelle und Effekte der Präsentations- und Abrufkodalität beim Lernen mit Multimedia

Zusammenfassung: In zwei experimentellen Zwei-Gruppen-Untersuchungen mit n1 = 42 und n2 = 40 wurden zwei Varianten eines multimedialen Lehrsystems verglichen, die sich hinsichtlich der Kodierungsform des Lehrmaterials (Bild vs. Text) unterschieden. Uberpruft wurde der Erwerb deklarativen Wissens, bei dem keine mentale Modellkonstruktion erforderlich war, sowie der Erwerb prozeduralen Wissens, der den Aufbau mentaler Modelle erforderte. Der Test zum prozeduralen Wissen bestand aus zwei Subtests, die sich in der Kodierungsform der Testaufgaben unterschieden (Bild vs. Text). Die Ergebnisse zeigen erwartungsgemas keine Unterschiede hinsichtlich der Verwendung des deklarativen Wissens. Bezuglich der Verwendung des erworbenen prozeduralen Wissens erweist sich die bildliche Lehrmaterialprasentation dann als besonders lernfordernd, wenn auch die Testaufgaben in bildlicher Form vorliegen. Die Ergebnisse legen den Schluss nahe, dass die unterschiedliche Lernwirksamkeit verschiedener Informationskodalitaten auf eine...