Xiaoge Guo

Inactivation of the Sas2 histone acetyltransferase delays senescence driven by telomere dysfunction

Changes in telomere chromatin have been linked to cellular senescence, but the underlying mechanisms and impact on lifespan are unclear. We found that inactivation of the Sas2 histone acetyltransferase delays senescence in Saccharomyces cerevisiae telomerase (tlc1) mutants through a homologous recombination‐dependent mechanism. Sas2 acetylates histone H4 lysine 16 (H4K16), and telomere shortening in tlc1 mutants was accompanied by a selective and Sas2‐dependent increase in subtelomeric H4K16 acetylation. Further, mutation of H4 lysine 16 to arginine, which mimics constitutively deacetylated H4K16, delayed senescence and was epistatic to sas2 deletion, indicating that deacetylated H4K16 mediates the delay caused by sas2 deletion. Sas2 normally prevents the Sir2/3/4 heterochromatin complex from leaving the telomere and spreading to internal euchromatic loci. Senescence was delayed by sir3 deletion, but not sir2 deletion, indicating that senescence delay is mediated by release of Sir3 specifically from the telomere repeats. In contrast, sir4 deletion sped senescence and blocked the delay conferred by sas2 or sir3 deletion. We thus show that manipulation of telomere chromatin modulates senescence caused by telomere shortening.

SMRT Sequencing for Parallel Analysis of Multiple Targets and Accurate SNP Phasing

Single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing generates much longer reads than other widely used next-generation (next-gen) sequencing methods, but its application to whole genome/exome analysis has been limited. Here, we describe the use of SMRT sequencing coupled with barcoding to simultaneously analyze one or a small number of genomic targets derived from multiple sources. In the budding yeast system, SMRT sequencing was used to analyze strand-exchange intermediates generated during mitotic recombination and to analyze genetic changes in a forward mutation assay. The general barcoding-SMRT approach was then extended to diffuse large B-cell lymphoma primary tumors and cell lines, where detected changes agreed with prior Illumina exome sequencing. A distinct advantage afforded by SMRT sequencing over other next-gen methods is that it immediately provides the linkage relationships between SNPs in the target segment sequenced. The strength of our approach for mutation/recombination studies (as well as linkage identification) derives from its inherent computational simplicity coupled with a lack of reliance on sophisticated statistical analyses.

Molecular impact of selective NFKB1 and NFKB2 signaling on DLBCL phenotype

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) has been categorized into two molecular subtypes that have prognostic significance, namely germinal center B-cell like (GCB) and activated B-cell like (ABC). Although ABC-DLBCL has been associated with NF-κB activation, the relationships between activation of specific NF-κB signals and DLBCL phenotype remain unclear. Application of novel gene expression classifiers identified two new DLBCL categories characterized by selective p100 (NF-κB2) and p105 (NF-κB1) signaling. Interestingly, our molecular studies showed that p105 signaling is predominantly associated with GCB subtype and histone mutations. Conversely, most tumors with p100 signaling displayed ABC phenotype and harbored ABC-associated mutations in genes such as MYD88 and PIM1. In vitro, MYD88 L265P mutation promoted p100 signaling through TAK1/IKKα and GSK3/Fbxw7a pathways, suggesting a novel role for this protein as an upstream regulator of p100. p100 signaling was engaged during activation of normal B cells, suggesting p100’s role in ABC phenotype development. Additionally, silencing p100 in ABC-DLBCL cells resulted in a GCB-like phenotype, with suppression of Blimp, IRF4 and XBP1 and upregulation of BCL6, whereas introduction of p52 or p100 into GC cells resulted in differentiation toward an ABC-like phenotype. Together, these findings identify specific roles for p100 and p105 signaling in defining DLBCL molecular subtypes and posit MYD88/p100 signaling as a regulator for B-cell activation.

High-throughput creation and functional profiling of DNA sequence variant libraries using CRISPR–Cas9 in yeast

Construction and characterization of large genetic variant libraries is essential for understanding genome function, but remains challenging. Here, we introduce a Cas9-based approach for generating pools of mutants with defined genetic alterations (deletions, substitutions, and insertions) with an efficiency of 80–100% in yeast, along with methods for tracking their fitness en masse. We demonstrate the utility of our approach by characterizing the DNA helicase SGS1 with small tiling deletion mutants that span the length of the protein and a series of point mutations against highly conserved residues in the protein. In addition, we created a genome-wide library targeting 315 poorly characterized small open reading frames (smORFs, <100 amino acids in length) scattered throughout the yeast genome, and assessed which are vital for growth under various environmental conditions. Our strategy allows fundamental biological questions to be investigated in a high-throughput manner with precision.

Removal of N-6-methyladenine by the nucleotide excision repair pathway triggers the repair of mismatches in yeast gap-repair intermediates.

Gap-repair assays have been an important tool for studying the genetic control of homologous recombination in yeast. Sequence analysis of recombination products derived when a gapped plasmid is diverged relative to the chromosomal repair template additionally has been used to infer structures of strand-exchange intermediates. In the absence of the canonical mismatch repair pathway, mismatches present in these intermediates are expected to persist and segregate at the next round of DNA replication. In a mismatch repair defective (mlh1Δ) background, however, we have observed that recombination-generated mismatches are often corrected to generate gene conversion or restoration events. In the analyses reported here, the source of the aberrant mismatch removal during gap repair was examined. We find that most mismatch removal is linked to the methylation status of the plasmid used in the gap-repair assay. Whereas more than half of Dam-methylated plasmids had patches of gene conversion and/or restoration interspersed with unrepaired mismatches, mismatch removal was observed in less than 10% of products obtained when un-methylated plasmids were used in transformation experiments. The methylation-linked removal of mismatches in recombination intermediates was due specifically to the nucleotide excision repair pathway, with such mismatch removal being partially counteracted by glycosylases of the base excision repair pathway. These data demonstrate that nucleotide excision repair activity is not limited to bulky, helix-distorting DNA lesions, but also targets removal of very modest perturbations in DNA structure. In addition to its effects on mismatch removal, methylation reduced the overall gap-repair efficiency, but this reduction was not affected by the status of excision repair pathways. Finally, gel purification of DNA prior to transformation reduced gap-repair efficiency four-fold in a nucleotide excision repair-defective background, indicating that the collateral introduction of UV damage can potentially compromise genetic interpretations.

An enhanced CRISPR repressor for targeted mammalian gene regulation

The RNA-guided endonuclease Cas9 can be converted into a programmable transcriptional repressor, but inefficiencies in target-gene silencing have limited its utility. Here we describe an improved Cas9 repressor based on the C-terminal fusion of a rationally designed bipartite repressor domain, KRAB–MeCP2, to nuclease-dead Cas9. We demonstrate the system’s superiority in silencing coding and noncoding genes, simultaneously repressing a series of target genes, improving the results of single and dual guide RNA library screens, and enabling new architectures of synthetic genetic circuits.The fusion of dead Cas9 with KRAB and the transcriptional repressor domain of the chromatin modifier MeCP2 leads to an efficient transcriptional silencer that can be applied to genome-scale screens and genetic circuits.

High-throughput creation and functional profiling of eukaryotic DNA sequence variant libraries using CRISPR/Cas9

Construction of genetic variant libraries with phenotypic measurement is central to advancing today’s functional genomics, and remains a grand challenge. Here, we introduce a Cas9-based approach for generating pools of mutants with defined genetic alterations (deletions, substitutions and insertions), along with methods for tracking their fitness en masse. We demonstrate the utility of our approach in performing focused analysis of hundreds of mutants of a single protein and in investigating the biological function of an entire family of poorly characterized genetic elements. Our platform allows fundamental biology questions to be investigated in a quick, easy and affordable manner.

CRISPR Guide RNA Cloning for Mammalian Systems

The outlined protocol describes streamlined methods for the efficient and cost-effective generation of Cas9-associated guide RNAs. Two alternative strategies for guide RNA (gRNA) cloning are outlined based on the usage of the Type IIS restriction enzyme BsmBI in combination with a set of compatible vectors. Outside of the access to Sanger sequencing services to validate the generated vectors, no special equipment or reagents are required aside from those that are standard to modern molecular biology laboratories. The outlined method is primarily intended for cloning one single gRNA or one paired gRNA-expressing vector at a time. This procedure does not scale well for the generation of libraries containing thousands of gRNAs. For those purposes, alternative sources of oligonucleotide synthesis such as oligo-chip synthesis are recommended. Finally, while this protocol focuses on a set of mammalian vectors, the general strategy is plastic and is applicable to any organism if the appropriate gRNA vector is available.