Xiaojie Mou

China's coastal wetlands: Conservation history, implementation efforts, existing issues and strategies for future improvement

China has approximately 5.80×10(6)ha coastal wetlands by 2014, accounting for 10.82% of the total area of natural wetlands. Healthy coastal wetland ecosystems play an important role in guaranteeing the territory ecological security and the sustainable development of coastal zone in China. In this paper, the natural geography and the past and present status of Chinas coastal wetlands were introduced and the five stages (1950s-1970s, 1980s-1991, 1992-2002, 2003-2010 and 2011-present) of Chinas coastal wetlands conservation from the foundation of the Peoples Republic in 1949 to present were distinguished and reviewed. Over the past decades, China has made great efforts in coastal wetland conservation, as signified by the implementation of coastal wetland restoration projects, the construction of coastal wetland nature reserves, the practice of routine ecological monitoring and two national wetland surveys, the promulgation of local wetland conservation statutes and specific regulations, the coordination mechanism to enhance management capacity, the wide development of coastal wetland research and public participation, and the extensive communication to strengthen international cooperation. Nonetheless, six major issues recently emerged in Chinas coastal wetland conservation are evidently existed, including the increasing threats of pollution and human activities, the increasing adverse effects of threaten factors on ecosystem function, the increasing threats of coastal erosion and sea-level rising, the insufficient funding for coastal wetlands conservation, the imperfect legal and management system for coastal wetlands, and the insufficient education, research and international cooperation. Although the threats and pressures on coastal wetlands conservation are still apparent, the future of Chinas coastal wetlands looks promising since the Chinese government understands that the sustainable development in coastal zone requires new attitudes, sound policies and concerted efforts at all levels. The major strategies for future improvement of Chinas coastal wetland conservation include: exploring effective measures in response to major threaten factors; improving the conservation and compensation system for coastal wetlands; strengthening coastal wetland legislation and management; increasing funds for coastal wetland conservation and research; and strengthening coastal wetland education and international cooperation.

Fluxes of nitrous oxide and methane in different coastal Suaeda salsa marshes of the Yellow River estuary, China

The spatial and temporal variations of the fluxes of nitrous oxide (N(2)O) and methane (CH(4)) and associated abiotic sediment parameters were quantified for the first time across the coastal marsh dominated by Suaeda salsa in the Yellow River estuary during 2009/2010. During all times of day and the seasons measured, N(2)O and CH(4) fluxes from coastal marsh ranged from -0.0147 mg N(2)O m(-2) h(-1) to 0.0982 mg N(2)O m(-2) h(-1) and -0.7421 mg CH(4) m(-2) h(-1) to 0.4242 mg CH(4) m(-2) h(-1), respectively. The mean N(2)O fluxes in spring, summer, autumn and winter were 0.0325 mg N(2)O m(-2) h(-1), 0.0089 mg N(2)O m(-2) h(-1), 0.0119 mg N(2)O m(-2) h(-1) and 0.0140 mg N(2)O m(-2) h(-1), and the average CH(4) fluxes were -0.0109 mg CH(4) m(-2) h(-1), -0.0174 mg CH(4) m(-2) h(-1), -0.0141 mg CH(4) m(-2) h(-1) and -0.0089 mg CH(4) m(-2) h(-1), respectively, indicating that the coastal marsh acted as N(2)O source and CH(4) sink. Both N(2)O and CH(4) fluxes differed significantly between times of day of sampling. N(2)O fluxes differed significantly between sampling seasons as well as between sampling positions, while CH(4) fluxes had no significant differences between seasons or positions. Temporal variations of N(2)O emissions were probably related to the effects of vegetation (S. salsa) during summer and autumn and the frequent freeze/thaw cycle of sediment during spring and winter, while those of CH(4) fluxes were controlled by the interactions of thermal conditions and other abiotic factors (soil moisture and salinity). Spatial variations of N(2)O and CH(4) fluxes were primarily affected by soil moisture fluctuation derived from astronomic tide, sediment substrate and vegetation composition. N(2)O and CH(4) fluxes, expressed as CO(2)-equivaltent (CO(2)-e) emissions, showed that N(2)O comprised the principal part of total calculated CO(2)-e emissions during spring and winter, while the contributions of CH(4) could not be ignored during summer and autumn. This study highlights the importance of seasonal N(2)O and CH(4) contributions, particularly during times of significant CH(4) consumption. For the accurate up-scaling of N(2)O and CH(4) fluxes to annual rates, a careful sampling design at site-level is required to capture the potentially considerable temporal and spatial variations of N(2)O and CH(4) emissions.

Nitrogen cycle of a typical Suaeda salsa marsh ecosystem in the Yellow River estuary

The nitrogen (N) biological cycle of the Suaeda salsa marsh ecosystem in the Yellow River estuary was studied during 2008 to 2009. Results showed that soil N had significant seasonal fluctuations and vertical distribution. The N/P ratio (15.73 +/- 1.77) of S. salsa was less than 16, indicating that plant growth was limited by both N and P. The N absorption coefficient of S. salsa was very low (0.007), while the N utilization and cycle coefficients were high (0.824 and 0.331, respectively). The N turnover among compartments of S. salsa marsh showed that N uptake from aboveground parts and roots were 2.539 and 0.622 g/m2, respectively. The N translocation from aboveground parts to roots and from roots to soil were 2.042 and 0.076 g/m2, respectively. The N translocation from aboveground living bodies to litter was 0.497 g/m2, the annual N return from litter to soil was far less than 0.368 g/m2, and the net N mineralization in topsoil during the growing season was 0.033 g/m2. N was an important limiting factor in S. salsa marsh, and the ecosystem was classified as unstable and vulnerable. S. salsa was seemingly well adapted to the low-nutrient status and vulnerable habitat, and the nutrient enrichment due to N import from the Yellow River estuary would be a potential threat to the S. salsa marsh. Excessive nutrient loading might favor invasive species and induce severe long-term degradation of the ecosystem if human intervention measures were not taken. The N quantitative relationships determined in our study might provide a scientific basis for the establishment of effective measures.

Nitrogen Biological Cycle Characteristics of Seepweed(Suaeda salsa) Wetland in Intertidal Zone of Huanghe(Yellow) River Estuary

From April 2008 to November 2009, the nitrogen (N) cycle of plant-soil system in seepweed (Suaeda salsa) wetland in the intertidal zone of the Huanghe (Yellow) River estuary was studied. Results showed that soil N had significant seasonal fluctuations and vertical distribution, and the net N mineralization rates in topsoil were significantly different in growing season (p < 0.01). The N/P ratio (9.87 ± 1.23) of S. salsa was less than 14, indicating that plant growth was limited by N. The N accumulated in S. salsa litter at all times during decomposition, which was ascribed to the N immobilization by microbes from the environment. Soil organic N was the main N stock of plant-soil system, accounting for 97.35% of the total N stock. The N absorption and utilization coefficients of S. salsa were very low (0.0145 and 0.3844, respectively), while the N cycle coefficient was high (0.7108). The results of the N turnovers among compartments of S. salsa wetland showed that the N uptake amount of aboveground part and root were 7.764 g/m2and 4.332 g/m2, respectively. The N translocation amounts from aboveground part to root and from root to soil were 3.881 g/m2 and 0.626 g/m2, respectively. The N translocation amount from aboveground living body to litter was 3.883 g/m2, the annual N return amount from litter to soil was more than 0.125(−) g/m2 (minus represented immobilization), and the net N mineralization amount in topsoil (0–15 cm) in growing season was 1.190 g/m2. The assessment of N biological cycle status of S. salsa wetland indicated that N was a very important limiting factor and the ecosystem was situated in unstable and vulnerable status. The S. salsa was seemingly well adapted to the low-nutrient status and vulnerable habitat, and the N quantitative relationships determined in the compartment model might provide scientific base for us to reveal the special adaptive strategy of S. salsa to the vulnerable habitat in the following studies.

Decomposition and heavy metal variations of the typical halophyte litters in coastal marshes of the Yellow River estuary, China

The concentrations of C, Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn, Ni and Mn were determined in decomposing litters of Phragmites australis, Suaeda salsa and Suaeda glauca in three plots of the Yellow River estuary to investigate the variations of metal stocks. Results showed that the decomposition rates significantly differed among species (p < 0.05), in the order of S. glauca (0.002010 d(-1)) > S. salsa (0.000814 d(-1)) > P. australis (0.000766 d(-1)). The concentrations of Cu and Zn in the three litters (particularly S. glauca) generally showed increasing tendency, while those of Pb, Cr, Ni and Mn exhibited different temporal variations. Compared to P. australis and S. salsa, the key mechanisms affecting the variation of metals in S. glauca might be more complex. In most periods, Pb stocks in P. australis, S. salsa and S. glauca, Zn stocks in S. salsa and S. glauca, and Cr, Ni and Mn stocks in P. australis and S. glauca were lower than the initial ones, implying that release exceeded incorporation. Comparatively, Zn stocks in P. australis, Cr, Ni and Mn stocks in S. salsa and in particular Cu stocks in the three litters were generally positive, evidencing incorporation of these metals in most sampling times. The three halophytes were particular efficient in binding Cu and releasing Pb, indicating that the potential eco-toxic risk of Pb exposure might be serious. This study emphasized the strong influences of key biotic (litter types, carbon/metal ratios and activities of microbial organisms) and abiotic variables (salinity, sediment resuspension induced by tidal inundation and passive sorption onto recalcitrant organic fractions) on metal cycling in coastal marshes of the Yellow River estuary.

Responses of CH4 emissions to nitrogen addition and Spartina alterniflora invasion in Minjiang River estuary, southeast of China

The nitrogen (N) input and Spartina alterniflora invasion in the tidal marsh of the southeast of China are increasingly serious. To evaluate CH4 emissions in the tidal marsh as affected by the N inputs and S. alterniflora invasion, we measured CH4 emissions from plots with vegetated S. alterniflora and native Cyperus malaccensis, and fertilized with exogenous N at the rate of 0 (N0), 21 (N1) and 42 (N2) g N/(m2·yr), respectively, in the Shanyutan marsh in the Minjiang River estuary, the southeast of China. The average CH4 fluxes during the experiment in the C. malaccensis and S. alterniflora plots without N addition were 3.67 mg CH4/(m2·h) and 7.79 mg CH4/(m2·h), respectively, suggesting that the invasion of S. alterniflora into the Minjiang River estuary stimulated CH4 emission. Exogenous N had positive effects on CH4 fluxes both in native and in invaded tidal marsh. The mean CH4 fluxes of N1 and N2 treatments increased by 31.05% and 123.50% in the C. malaccensis marsh, and 63.88% and 7.55% in the S. alterniflora marsh, respectively, compared to that of N0 treatment. The CH4 fluxes in the two marshes were positively correlated with temperature and pH, and negatively correlated with electrical conductivity and redox potential (Eh) at different N addition treatments. While the relationships between CH4 fluxes and environmental variables (especially soil temperature, pH and Eh at different depths) tended to decrease with N additions. Significant temporal variability in CH4 fluxes were observed as the N was gradually added to the native and invaded marshes. In order to better assess the global climatic role of tidal marshes as affected by N addition, much more attention should be paid to the short-term temporal variability in CH4 emission.

Impacts of burial by sediment on decomposition and heavy metal concentrations of Suaeda salsa in intertidal zone of the Yellow River estuary, China

Three one-off burial treatments were designed in intertidal zone of the Yellow River estuary to determine the effects of sediment burial on decomposition and heavy metal levels of Suaeda salsa. Sediment burial showed significant effect on decomposition rate of S. salsa. With increasing burial depth, Cu, Zn, Cd and Co levels generally increased, while Cr and Mn levels decreased. Except for Zn, Mn, Cd and Co, stocks of Pb, Cr, Cu, Ni and V in S. salsa among burials were greatly different. The S. salsa in three burials was particular efficient in binding V and Co and releasing Pb, Zn and Cd, and, with increasing burial depth, stocks of Cr, Cu, Ni and Mn shifted from accumulation to release. In future, the eco-toxic risk of Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn, Ni, Mn and Cd exposure might be serious as the strong burial episodes occurred in S. salsa marsh.

Short-Term Study on Variations of Carbon Dioxide and Methane Emissions from Intertidal Zone of the Yellow River Estuary during Autumn and Winter

To investigate the spatial and temporal variations of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) emissions and determine the key environmental factors influencing their fluxes across the coastal marsh dominated by Suaeda salsa in the Yellow River estuary (China), short-term measurements were conducted in intertidal zone in autumn and winter during 2011–2012. Results showed that mean CO2 and CH4 fluxes and their cumulative emissions indicated intertidal zone of the examined marshes as strong CO2 source and weak CH4 sink over all sampling seasons with values of 34.35 mgCO2·m−2·h−1 and -0.0084 mgCH4·m−2·h−1 and 804.21 gCO2·m−2 and -198.85 mgCH4·m−2, respectively. Temporal variations of CO2 emission were strongly correlated with air and sediment temperatures, while spatial variations were mainly affected by vegetation composition at spatial scale. The freeze/thaw cycles in sediments during early winter and midwinter were one of main factors influencing the temporal variations of CH4 emission, while the concentrations of sulfate might greatly influence the spatial variation of CH4 fluxes. Next step, to assess the CO2 and CH4 inventory precisely during autumn and winter, the potential effects of exogenous nutrient loading on their emissions from intertidal zone of the Yellow River estuary should be emphasized and the long-term studies should be conducted.

Effects of Reclamation on Soil Carbon and Nitrogen in Coastal Wetlands of Liaohe River Delta, China

To evaluate the influence of wetland reclamation on vertical distribution of carbon and nitrogen in coastal wetland soils, we measured the soil organic carbon (SOC), soil total nitrogen (STN) and selected soil properties at five sampling plots (reed marsh, paddy field, corn field, forest land and oil-polluted wetland) in the Liaohe River estuary in September 2013. The results showed that reclamation significantly changed the contents of SOC and STN in the Liaohe River estuary (P < 0.001). The SOC concentrations were in the order: oil-polluted wetland > corn field > paddy field > forest land > reed marsh, with mean values of 52.17, 13.14, 11.46, 6.44 and 6.16 g/kg, respectively. STN followed a similar order as SOC, with mean values of 1351.14, 741.04, 632.32, 496.17 and 390.90 mg/kg, respectively. Interaction of reclamation types and soil depth had significant effects on SOC and STN, while soil depth had significant effects on SOC, but not on STN. The contents of SOC and STN were negatively correlated with pH and redox potential (Eh) in reed marsh and corn field, while the SOC and STN in paddy field had positive correlations with electrical conductivity (EC). Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), ammonium nitrogen (NH4+-N) and nitrate nitrogen (NO3–-N) were also significantly changed by human activities. NH4+-N and NO3–-N increased to different degrees, and forest land had the highest NO3–-N concentration and lowest DOC concentration, which could have been caused by differences in soil aeration and fertilization. Overall, the results indicate that reed harvest increased soil carbon and nitrogen release in the Liaohe River Estuary, while oil pollution significantly increased the SOC and STN; however, these cannot be used as indicators of soil fertility and quality because of the serious oil pollution.

Effects of Anthropogenic Disturbance on Sediment Organic Carbon Mineralization Under Different Water Conditions in Coastal Wetland of a Subtropical Estuary

The changes in soil organic carbon (C) mineralization as affected by anthropogenic disturbance directly determine the role of soils as C source or sink in the global C budget. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of anthropogenic disturbance (aquaculture pond, pollutant discharge and agricultural activity) on soil organic C mineralization under different water conditions in the Minjiang River estuary wetland, Southeast China. The results showed that the organic C mineralization in the wetland soils was significantly affected by human disturbance and water conditions (P < 0.001), and the interaction between human disturbance activities and water conditions was also significant (P < 0.01). The C mineralization rate and the cumulative mineralized carbon dioxide-carbon (CO2-C) (at the 49th day) ranked from highest to lowest as follows: Phragmites australis wetland soil > aquaculture pond sediment > soil near the discharge outlet > rice paddy soil. This indicated that human disturbance inhibited the mineralization of C in soils of the Minjiang River estuary wetland, and the inhibition increased with the intensity of human disturbance. The data for cumulative mineralized CO2-C showed a good fit (R2 > 0.91) to the first-order kinetic model Ct = C0 (1–exp(–kt)). The kinetic parameters C0, k and C0k were significantly affected by human disturbance and water conditions. In addition, the total amount of mineralized C (in 49 d) was positively related to C0, C0k and electrical conductivity of soils. These findings indicated that anthropogenic disturbance suppressed the organic C mineralization potential in subtropical coastal wetland soils, and changes of water pattern as affected by human activities in the future would have a strong influence on C cycling in the subtropical estuarine wetlands.