Xuezhi Zhang

Life-cycle analysis on biodiesel production from microalgae: water footprint and nutrients balance.

This research examines the life-cycle water and nutrients usage of microalgae-based biodiesel production. The influence of water types, operation with and without recycling, algal species, geographic distributions are analyzed. The results confirm the competitiveness of microalgae-based biofuels and highlight the necessity of recycling harvested water and using sea/wastewater as water source. To generate 1 kg biodiesel, 3726 kg water, 0.33 kg nitrogen, and 0.71 kg phosphate are required if freshwater used without recycling. Recycling harvest water reduces the water and nutrients usage by 84% and 55%. Using sea/wastewater decreases 90% water requirement and eliminates the need of all the nutrients except phosphate. The variation in microalgae species and geographic distribution are analyzed to reflect microalgae biofuel development in the US. The impacts of current federal and state renewable energy programs are also discussed to suggest suitable microalgae biofuel implementation pathways and identify potential bottlenecks.

Harvesting algal biomass for biofuels using ultrafiltration membranes

The objective of this paper is to develop efficient technologies for harvesting of algal biomass using membrane filtration. Foulants were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Anti-fouling strategies were established, such as using air-assisted backwash with air scouring, and optimizing operational conditions. A model was also developed to predict the flux decline and final concentration based on a resistance-in-series analysis and a cake development calculation. The results showed that the buildup of the algal cake layer and adsorption of algogenic organic matter (AOM) (mainly protein, polysaccharides or polysaccharide-like substances) on the membrane caused membrane fouling. The cake layer buildup was removed by conducting an air-assisted backwash every 15 min. The adsorbed AOM could be removed by soaking the membrane in 400mg/L NaClO for 1h. In our experiment the algal suspension was concentrated 150 times, to give a final cell concentration of 154.85g/L. The harvesting efficiency and average flux were 46.01 g/(m(2)h) and 45.50 L/(m(2)h), respectively. No algae were found in the permeate, which had an average turbidity of 0.018 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). The flux decline predicted by the model under different conditions was consistent with the experimental results.

The impact of ZnO nanoparticle aggregates on the embryonic development of zebrafish (Danio rerio)

With extensive use of metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) in a variety of applications comes a higher potential of release into aquatic environments. NPs tend to form much larger aggregates in water, which are expected to settle down to the bottom of the water column and possibly get mixed with the sediments. However, little is known about the environmental impacts and biological effects of these aggregated NPs in the sediment column. In this study, we examined the sedimentation of nanoscale ZnO particles (nZnO) in zebrafish culture medium, and assessed the toxicity of settled nZnO aggregates on developing zebrafish embryos and larvae. Given the known dissolution of nZnO particles to release Zn(2+), we also assessed the toxic effect of soluble Zn(2+) in this organism. We demonstrated that within 48 h, micron-sized nZnO aggregates were formed and settled out of the culture medium. These aggregates were found to exert dose-dependent toxicity to zebrafish embryos and larvae, reducing the hatching rate and causing pericardial edema. The observed toxicity of the nZnO aggregates was not likely a result solely of particle dissolution, as soluble Zn(2+) alone caused much less toxicity to zebrafish embryos than nZnO. Instead, the combination of both nZnO and Zn(2+) may contribute to the embryonic toxicity, possibly by increasing reactive oxidative species (ROS) and/or compromising the cellular oxidative stress response. Interestingly, we demonstrated that one type of formulated sediments could mitigate the toxicity of nZnO aggregates, highlighting a possible countermeasure to reduce the adverse impact of nZnO aggregates on the environment.

Trophic transfer of TiO2 nanoparticles from daphnia to zebrafish in a simplified freshwater food chain

The rapid development of nanotechnology and the corresponding increase in the use of manufactured nanomaterials (MNMs) in commercial products have led to concerns about the health risks and environmental impacts of such nanosized materials. One of the most significant and currently not well-understood risks is their potential transfer and magnification in food webs. To address this concern, a simplified model of a freshwater food chain including a low trophic level organism (daphnia, Daphnia magna) and a high trophic level organism (zebrafish, Danio rerio) was established. Our results provide the first direct evidence that nanoscale TiO(2) particles (nTiO(2)) can transfer from D. magna to D. rerio by dietary exposure. However, no biomagnifications of nTiO(2) was observed in this simplified food chain because the values of the biomagnification factors (BMF) in this study (0.024 and 0.009) were all less than one. Compared to the dietary intake, D. rerio could accumulate nTiO(2) by aqueous exposure with high bioaccumulation factors (BCFs) of 25.38 and 181.38 for 0.1 and 1.0mgL(-1) exposure groups, respectively. Nevertheless, higher body burden of nTiO(2) in the dietary exposure groups than that in the aqueous exposure groups demonstrated that dietary intake may constitute a major route of potential nanomaterial exposure for a higher trophic level of aquatic organisms. This study represents the first examination of the potential food chain transfer and biomagnification of nTiO(2) in an aquatic ecosystem.

Toxicity assessment of manufactured nanomaterials using the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii

With the rapid development of nanotechnology, there is an increasing risk of human and environmental exposure to nanotechnology-based materials and products. As water resources are particularly vulnerable to direct and indirect contamination of nonomaterials (NMs), the potential toxicity and environmental implication of NMs to aquatic organisms must be evaluated. In this study, we assessed potential toxicity of two commercially used NMs, titanium dioxide (TiO(2)) and quantum dots (QDs), using the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas reinhartii as a model system. The response of the organism to NMs was assessed at physiological, biochemical, and molecular genetic levels. Growth kinetics showed that growth inhibition occurred during the first two to three days of cultivation in the presence of TiO(2) or QDs. Measurements of lipid peroxidation measurement indicated that oxidative stress of the cells occurred as early as 6 h after exposure to TiO(2) or QDs. The transcriptional expression profiling of four stress response genes (sod1, gpx, cat, and ptox2) revealed that transient up-regulation of these genes occurred in cultures containing as low as 1.0 mg L(-1) of TiO(2) or 0.1 mg L(-1) of QDs, and the maximum transcripts of cat, sod1, gpx, and ptox2 occurred at 1.5, 3, 3, and 6 h, respectively, and were proportional to the initial concentration of the NMs. As the cultures continued, recovery in growth was observed and the extent of recovery, as indicated by the final cell concentration, was dosage-dependent. QDs were found to be more toxic to Chlamydomonas cells than TiO(2) under our experimental conditions.

Influence of titanium dioxide nanoparticles on speciation and bioavailability of arsenite.

In this study, the influence of the co-existence of TiO(2) nanoparticles on the speciation of arsenite [As(III)] was studied by observing its adsorption and valence changing. Moreover, the influence of TiO(2) nanoparticles on the bioavailability of As(III) was examined by bioaccumulation test using carp (Cyprinus carpio). The results showed that TiO(2) nanoparticles have a significant adsorption capacity for As (III). Equilibrium was established within 30 min, with about 30% of the initial As (III) being adsorbed onto TiO(2) nanoparticles. Most of aqueous As (III) was oxidized to As(V) in the presence of TiO(2) nanoparticles under sunlight. The carp accumulated considerably more As in the presence of TiO(2) nanoparticles than in the absence of TiO(2) nanoparticles, and after 25-day exposure, As concentration in carp increased by 44%. Accumulation of As in viscera, gills and muscle of the carp was significantly enhanced by the presence of TiO(2) nanoparticles.

Disruption of zebrafish (Danio rerio) reproduction upon chronic exposure to TiO2 nanoparticles

As common engineered nanomaterials, TiO(2) nanoparticles (nTiO(2)) are usually perceived as non-toxic, and have already been widely used in many products and applications. Such a perception might have been shaped by some short-term studies that revealed no/low toxicity of nTiO(2) to cells and eco-relevant organisms. However, given the ultimate release of nTiO(2) into the aquatic environment, which can act as a sink for engineered nanoparticles, their long-term impact on the environment and human health is still a concern and deserves more research efforts. Here, for the first time, we demonstrate that chronic exposure of zebrafish to 0.1 mg L(-1) nTiO(2), can significantly impair zebrafish reproduction. For instance, there was a 29.5% reduction in the cumulative number of zebrafish eggs after 13 weeks of nTiO(2) exposure. Thus, we provided timely information on indicating a serious risk of reproductive impairment of environments contaminated with low levels of nTiO(2) on aquatic organisms, leading to alterations in population dynamics and aquatic ecosystem balance, and thus warrants a careful scrutiny on toxicity assessment of nTiO(2), especially their long-term impact.

Influence of growth phase on harvesting of Chlorella zofingiensis by dissolved air flotation.

The effects of changes in cellular characteristics and dissolved organic matter (DOM) on dissolved air flotation (DAF) harvesting of Chlorella zofingiensis at the different growth phases were studied. Harvesting efficiency increased with Al(3+) dosage and reached more than 90%, regardless of growth phases. In the absence of DOM, the ratio of Al(3+) dosage to surface functional group concentration determined the harvesting efficiency. DOM in the culture medium competed with algal cell surface functional groups for Al(3+), and more Al(3+) was required for cultures with DOM than for DOM-free cultures to achieve the same harvesting efficiency. As the culture aged, the increase of Al(3+) dosage due to increased DOM was less than the decrease of Al(3+) dosage associated with reduced cell surface functional groups, resulting in overall reduced demand for Al(3+). The interdependency of Al(3+) dosage and harvesting efficiency on concentrations of cell surface functional groups and DOM was successfully modeled.

Algae harvesting for biofuel production: influences of UV irradiation and polyethylenimine (PEI) coating on bacterial biocoagulation.

There is a pressing need to develop efficient and sustainable separation technologies to harvest algae for biofuel production. In this work, two bacterial species (Escherichia coli and Rhodococus sp.) were used as biocoagulants to harvest Chlorella zofingiensis and Scenedesmus dimorphus. The influences of UV irradiation and polyethylenimine (PEI)-coating on the algal harvesting efficiency were investigated. Results showed that the UV irradiation could slightly enhance bacteria-algae biocoagulation and algal harvesting efficiency. In contrast, the PEI-coated E. coli cells noticeably increased the harvesting efficiencies from 23% to 83% for S. dimorphus when compared to uncoated E. coli cells. Based on the soft-particle Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory, an energy barrier existed between uncoated E. coli cells and algal cells, whereas the PEI coating on E. coli cells eliminated the energy barrier, thereby the biocoagulation was significantly improved. Overall, this work presented groundwork toward the potential use of bacterial biomass for algal harvesting from water.

Critical evaluation and modeling of algal harvesting using dissolved air flotation

In this study, Chlorella zofingiensis harvesting by dissolved air flotation (DAF) was critically evaluated with regard to algal concentration, culture conditions, type and dosage of coagulants, and recycle ratio. Harvesting efficiency increased with coagulant dosage and leveled off at 81%, 86%, 91%, and 87% when chitosan, Al3+, Fe3+, and cetyl trimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) were used at dosages of 70, 180, 250, and 500 mg g−1, respectively. The DAF efficiency‐coagulant dosage relationship changed with algal culture conditions. Evaluation of the influence of the initial algal concentration and recycle ratio revealed that, under conditions typical for algal harvesting, it is possible that the number of bubbles is insufficient. A DAF algal harvesting model was developed to explain this observation by introducing mass‐based floc size distributions and a bubble limitation into the white water blanket model. The model revealed the importance of coagulation to increase floc‐bubble collision and attachment, and the preferential interaction of bubbles with larger flocs, which limited the availability of bubbles to the smaller sized flocs. The harvesting efficiencies predicted by the model agree reasonably with experimental data obtained at different Al3+ dosages, algal concentrations, and recycle ratios. Based on this modeling, critical parameters for efficient algal harvesting were identified. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2014;111: 2477–2485.