Yannis A. Stivachtis

Civilization and international society: the case of European Union expansion

Joining a society of some kind requires the fulfillment of certain standards. In international society, states acknowledge the need for certain collective standards of international conduct if international order is to be maintained. The first truly global application of international norms took place during the nineteenth century through the process of the expansion of the European society of states and its gradual transformation to the contemporary global international society. In this process, the standard of ‘civilization’ played an essential role in determining which states would join the expanding European society and which ones would not. Despite the major changes that have occurred, the standard of ‘civilization’ has remained an international practice as well as a benchmark against which the attitudes and policies of states are assessed. Nowhere can this be seen more clearly than in the EU policy of ‘membership conditionality’. Although many explanations for EU expansion have been put forward rather absent from debate has been the civilization dimension which is embedded in membership conditionality and which should be given more emphasis.

Regional International Society in a Post‐Enlargement Europe

Abstract Enlargement has been a byword of Europe’s international relations since the end of the Cold War. But enlargement has now reached a near terminus. For NATO and the European Union, it no longer animates grand debate. For the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, it is yesterday’s issue as no real scope exists for additional members. The condition of post‐enlargement has considerable significance for Europe. The English School is a valuable but so far under‐utilized approach for conceptualizing this condition. Here we introduce English School thinking and elaborate the notion of regional international society. This is a preliminary to the articles which follow, each of which considers a specific organizational or regional component of that society.

International society and regional integration in Central Asia

This paper examines the degree of integration in Central Asia by utilizing the international society approach of the English School of International Relations (ES). After addressing the debate surrounding the concept of ‘international society’ and discussing its contents and application the paper suggests that within the contemporary heterogeneous global international society there exist some more homogeneous regional/sub-global international societies with Central Asia constituting one of them. It argues that during the Cold War the global international society was divided into two sub-global international societies with the Soviet Union and its allies forming one of them. With the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia sought to re-establish its regional primacy through the establishment of a set of international organizations ranging from the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) to the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). The paper claims that this range of organizations reflects the existence of a regional international society in Central Asia.

Europe after enlargement

1. Introduction: Regional International Society in a Post-Enlargement Europe 2. The Changing Nature of International Institutions in Europe: The Challenge of the European Union 3. NATO: Within and Between European International Society 4. The Council of Europe: The Institutional Limits of Contemporary European International Society? 5. The OSCE: A Pan-European Society in the Making? 6. Russia and Europe: Whose Society? 7. Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine: In or Out of European Regional International Society? 8. Turkey: Identity, Foreign Policy, and Socialization in a Post-Enlargement Europe

The Council of Europe: The Institutional Limits of Contemporary European International Society?

Abstract This article traces the historical development of the Council of Europe and its role in post‐enlargement Europe. The evolving structures and functions of the organization demonstrate an ongoing commitment to a homogeneous European regional international society. It is argued that the Council of Europe’s liberal norm socialization process is incomplete and that this process is essential to the organization’s legitimacy as well as for the deepening of European Regional International Society, particularly in the face of non‐compliant member states and the complementary work of the European Union. In the post‐enlargement era, the Council of Europe has established itself as an important component of a historical project of Europeanization.

Liberal democracy, market economy, and international conduct as standards of ‘civilization’ in contemporary international society: The case of Russia's entry into the ‘community of civilized states’

In his report to the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation in the beginning of 1992, President Boris Yeltsin stated that one of the fundamental principles of his foreign policy was the integration of Russia into the ‘community of civilized states’. However, joining a society or community of some kind requires the fulfilment of certain standards. The first global application of international norms and expected standards of behaviour took place during the nineteenth century through the process of the expansion of the European society of states and its gradual transformation to the contemporary global international society. In this process, the standard of ‘civilization’ played an essential role in determining which states would join the expanding European society and which ones would not. Despite its official repudiation, the standard of ‘civilization’ has remained an international practice as well as a benchmark against which the attitudes and policies of states are assessed. This paper examines the changes that the Russian Government under President Yeltsin had to introduce in order to achieve the countrys admission into post-Cold War international society. It argues that these changes included the democratization of the Russian political system, the transformation of the Russian economic system into a free market economy, and the de-ideologisation of the Russian foreign policy.

The English School and the concept of ‘empire’: theoretical and practical/political implications

The English School (ES) of International Relations is mainly associated with the idea of ‘international society’ defined as a group of states bound by a common set of rules in their relations with one another and sharing in the working of common institutions. However, the idea of ‘empire’ has posed some challenges to ES thinking. Consequently, some ES scholars have viewed ‘empire’ as a form of statehood and, therefore, as constituting one of the units in an international society. Some others have considered ‘empire’ as a form of an international society in itself while others have treated it as a form of a ‘world society’. Because the ideas of ‘international’ and ‘world society’ are associated with particular, norms, rules, practices, and policies, the present article aims at addressing this controversy within the ES and examining the political implications stemming from the various ES usages of the concept of ‘empire’.

Changing Gender Attitudes in Candidate Countries: The Impact of EU Conditionality — The Case of Turkey

Abstract The impact of the European Union integration process on democratization in candidate states is often considered to be gradual. Yet it could also be argued that the effects can be seen more immediately, often in parallel to the membership negotiations. This paper investigates the impact of EU conditionality on gender attitudes and policies in Turkey to verify the above‐indicated hypothesis. Furthermore, impacts may come during the pre‐accession and accession negotiations phases and thus the effects on gender equality may be short or medium term. Despite major shortcomings that still exist in Turkish legislation, one should acknowledge that the actions of the Turkish government have been particularly significant given the context in which these reforms take place. The Turkish case clearly shows that the speed and depth of reforms of EU conditionality must be examined within a country’s political and socio‐cultural context.

Eastern Mediterranean: A New Region? Theoretical Considerations

The purpose of this chapter is to investigate whether Eastern Mediterranean can be conceptually viewed as a distinctive region. The study of regional security presupposes a well-defined region to apply. In the discipline of geography, a region is defined as an area on the earth’s surface marked by certain properties that are homogeneous inside and distinct from outside it. Regional geography, a subfield of geography, studies the specific unique characteristics of regions related to their culture, economy, topography, climate, politics and environmental factors. However, for the purposes of security analysis a region needs to be defined in terms of the security dynamics and interdependencies among states within it and which at the same time make it distinct from outside it.