Yasmina Okan

Do the media provide transparent health information? A cross-cultural comparison of public information about the HPV vaccine.

The media is a powerful tool for informing the public about health treatments. In particular, the Internet has gained importance as a widely valued source for health information for parents and adolescents. Nonetheless, traditional sources, such as newspapers, continue to report on health innovations. But do websites and newspaper reports provide balanced information? We performed a systematic media analysis to evaluate and compare media coverage of the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine on websites and in newspapers in Germany and Spain. We assessed to what extent the media provide complete (pros and cons), transparent (absolute instead of relative numbers), and correct information about the epidemiology and etiology of cervical cancer as well as the effectiveness and costs of the HPV vaccine. As a basis for comparison, a facts box containing current scientific evidence about cervical cancer and the HPV vaccine was developed. The media analysis included 61 websites and 141 newspaper articles in Germany, and 41 websites and 293 newspaper articles in Spain. Results show that 57% of German websites and 43% of German newspaper reports communicated correct estimates of epidemiological data, whereas in Spain 39% of the websites and 20% of the newspaper did so. While two thirds of Spanish websites explicitly mentioned causes of cervical cancer as well as spontaneous recovery, German websites communicated etiological information less frequently. Findings reveal that correct estimates about the vaccines effectiveness were mentioned in 10% of German websites and 6% of German newspaper reports; none of the Spanish newspaper reports and 2% of Spanish websites reported effectiveness correctly. Only German websites (13%) explicitly referred to scientific uncertainty regarding the vaccines evaluation. We conclude that the media lack balanced reporting on the dimensions completeness, transparency, and correctness. We propose standards for more balanced reporting on websites and in newspapers.

When Higher Bars Are Not Larger Quantities: On Individual Differences in the Use of Spatial Information in Graph Comprehension

Abstract Graphical displays use spatial relations to convey meaning, facilitating the communication of quantitative information. However, information conveyed by spatial features can conflict with that conveyed by features linked to arbitrary conventions (e.g., axes labels or scales), leading to misinterpretations. Here, we investigated the role of individual differences in graph literacy on the interpretation of health-related bar graphs containing such conflicts. Individuals with low graph literacy were more often biased by spatial-to-conceptual mappings grounded in their real world experience, neglecting information in titles of graphs, axes labels and scales. Implications for perspectives on embodied cognition and effective graphical design are discussed.

Improving risk understanding across ability levels: Encouraging active processing with dynamic icon arrays

Icon arrays have been found to improve risk understanding and reduce judgment biases across a wide range of studies. Unfortunately, individuals with low graph literacy experience only limited benefits from such displays. To enhance the efficacy and reach of these decision aids, the authors developed and tested 3 types of dynamic design features--that is, computerized display features that unfold over time. Specifically, the authors manipulated the sequential presentation of the different elements of icon arrays, the presence of explanatory labels indicating what was depicted in the different regions of the arrays, and the use of a reflective question followed by accuracy feedback. The first 2 features were designed to promote specific cognitive processes involved in graph comprehension, whereas the 3rd feature was designed to promote a more active, elaborative processing of risk information. Explanatory labels were effective in improving risk understanding among less graph-literate participants, whereas reflective questions resulted in large and robust performance benefits among participants with both low and high graph literacy. Theoretical and prescriptive implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

Communicating and Distorting Risks with Graphs: An Eye-Tracking Study

Graphs can represent complex information in accessible ways. Unfortunately, many graphs are poorly designed and lead to errors in judgment and decision-making. Here, we examine the influence of distorted graphs used by advertisers and major news organizations to communicate risks. Results indicated that the distorted graphs were associated with large judgment errors and that cognitive abilities (e.g., numeracy, graph literacy, cognitive reflection) predicted differences in error rates. Eye-tracking results revealed a strong link between elaborative information search and stimuli-memory, which mediated the ability-judgment relationship. Discussion focuses on cognitive mechanisms (e.g., elaborative encoding), implications for HFES graph design guidelines, and emerging opportunities for personalized decision support.

Biasing and debiasing health decisions with bar graphs: Costs and benefits of graph literacy

Bar graphs can improve risk communication in medicine and health. Unfortunately, recent research has revealed that bar graphs are associated with a robust bias that can lead to systematic judgement and decision-making errors. When people view bar graphs representing means, they tend to believe that data points located within bars are more likely to be part of the underlying distributions than equidistant points outside bars. In three experiments, we investigated potential consequences, key cognitive mechanisms, and generalisability of the within-the-bar bias in the medical domain. We also investigated the effectiveness of different interventions to reduce the effect of this bias and protect people from errors. Results revealed that the within-the-bar bias systematically affected participants’ judgements and decisions concerning treatments for controlling blood glucose, as well as their interpretations of ecological graphs designed to guide health policy decisions. Interestingly, individuals with higher graph literacy showed the largest biases. However, the use of dot plots to replace bars improved the accuracy of interpretations. Perceptual mechanisms underlying the within-the-bar bias and prescriptive implications for graph design are discussed.

Disfluent fonts lead to more utilitarian decisions in moral dilemmas

Abstract Previous research suggests that utilitarian decisions to moral dilemmas often stem from analytic, controlled cognitive processes. Furthermore, processing disfluency can trigger analytic thinking and improve performance on tasks that require logic and cognitive reflection. In the present study we investigated how processing fluency affects the readiness with which people give utilitarian responses to both personal and impersonal dilemmas. Participants were presented in two different experimental blocks with dilemmas written in both easy- (fluent) and hard-to-read (disfluent) fonts. We expected that dilemmas written in a disfluent font would be associated with more utilitarian responses. Results supported this prediction, albeit only when the disfluent dilemmas appeared first, showing that participants endorsed more utilitarian actions in the disfluent condition than in the fluent condition across dilemma types. These data suggest that increasing processing disfluency by manipulating the font affects decisions in the moral domain.

Disentangling the Effect of Valence and Arousal on Judgments Concerning Moral Transgressions.

An increasing body of research has investigated the effect of emotions on judgments concerning moral transgressions. Yet, few studies have controlled for arousal levels associated with the emotions. High arousal may affect moral processing by triggering attention to salient features of transgressions, independently of valence. Therefore previously documented differences in effects of negative and positive emotions may have been confounded by differences in arousal. We conducted two studies to shed light on this issue. In Study 1 we developed a questionnaire including vignettes selected on the basis of psychometrical properties (i.e., mean ratings of the actions and variability). This questionnaire was administered to participants in Study 2, after presenting them with selected pictures inducing different valence but equivalent levels of arousal. Negative pictures led to more severe moral judgments than neutral (p = .054, d = 0.60) and positive pictures (p = .002, d = 1.02), for vignettes that were not associated with extreme judgments. In contrast, positive pictures did not reliably affect judgments concerning such vignettes. These findings suggest that the observed effects of emotions cannot be accounted for by an increase in attention linked to the arousal which accompanies these emotions.

Transparent health information in the media

When it comes to medical decisions, people have to deal with a wide range of information from different sources. Information from the media is a prominent example: It increasingly addresses health-related issues and communicates benefits and risks of medical treatments and prevention programs. Is the media a reliable and objective source of health information? To investigate this issue, we conducted a media analysis of the widely promoted vaccination against human papillomavirus (HPV) in newspaper reports and Internet sources in Germany and Spain. These two countries differ in vaccination compliance rates and in the extent to which their health systems are directive. This chapter describes information categories in the media analyses. These categories included prevalence of cervical cancer and risk at baseline of suffering this disease, etiology, effectiveness of the vaccination, possible side effects, and costs. We compared media coverage and how balanced reports were in the two countries and investigated cross-cultural differences in medical communication.

Relación entre pensamiento y lenguaje: cómo el género gramatical afecta a las representaciones semánticas de los objetos

Resumen El lenguaje mantiene estrechas relaciones con diversos procesos psicologicos, como la atencion, la memoria o el razonamiento. En concreto, la relacion entre lenguaje y pensamiento plantea cuestiones fundamentales: ?representan las distintas lenguas la misma realidad social?; ?hasta que punto el lenguaje determina el modo en que pensamos? En este articulo, revisamos diversos estudios interculturales que han analizado la interrelacion entre lenguaje y pensamiento. Discutimos hallazgos que demuestran que el genero gramatical de las palabras afecta a las representaciones semanticas de los objetos que nos rodean. Asimismo, resaltamos como la medida en que se da este tipo de influencia esta determinada por la complejidad gramatical de cada lengua. Por ejemplo, en lenguas latinas como el espanol, frecuentemente existe una correspondencia entre el genero natural y el gramatical, y, por lo tanto, se establecen asociaciones fuertes entre ambos. En cambio, en lenguas con mayor complejidad gramatical, como el aleman, existen mas de dos generos no solo para la categorizacion de objetos, sino tambien de personas. Por lo tanto, en este tipo de lenguas el genero gramatical afectaria a las representaciones semanticas en menor medida. Concluimos que terminos con distinto genero gramatical conllevan distintas connotaciones sobre el genero natural, y resaltamos las implicaciones practicas que ello conlleva en el uso diario del lenguaje.