Yihan Wang

Distinct hsp70 Domains Mediate Apoptosis-inducing Factor Release and Nuclear Accumulation *

Although hsp70 antagonizes apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF)-mediated cell death, the relative importance of preventing its release from mitochondria versus sequestering leaked AIF in the cytosol remains controversial. To dissect these two protective mechanisms, hsp70 deletion mutants lacking either the chaperone function (hsp70-ΔEEVD) or ATPase function (hsp70-ΔATPase) were selectively overexpressed before exposing cells to a metabolic inhibitor, an insult sufficient to cause mitochondrial AIF release, nuclear AIF accumulation, and apoptosis. Compared with empty vector, overexpression of wild type human hsp70 inhibited bax activation and reduced mitochondrial AIF release after injury. In contrast, mutants lacking either the chaperone function (hsp70-ΔEEVD) or the ATP hydrolytic domain (hsp70-ΔATPase) failed to prevent mitochondrial AIF release. Although hsp70-ΔEEVD did not inhibit bax activation or mitochondrial membrane injury after cell stress, this hsp70 mutant co-immunoprecipitated with leaked AIF in injured cells and decreased nuclear AIF accumulation. In contrast, hsp70-ΔATPase did not interact with AIF either in intact cells or in a cell-free system and furthermore, failed to prevent nuclear AIF accumulation. These results demonstrate that mitochondrial protection against bax-mediated injury requires both intact chaperone and ATPase functions, whereas the ATPase domain is critical for sequestering AIF in the cytosol.

HSP72 attenuates renal tubular cell apoptosis and interstitial fibrosis in obstructive nephropathy

Although heat shock protein 72 kDa (HSP72) protects tubular epithelium from a variety of acute insults, its role in chronic renal injury and fibrosis is poorly characterized. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that HSP72 reduces apoptosis and epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), important contributors to tubular cell injury in vitro and in vivo. In rats, orally administered geranylgeranylacetone (GGA), an agent that selectively induces HSP72, markedly reduced both apoptosis and cell proliferation in tubular epithelium and decreased both interstitial fibroblast accumulation and collagen I deposition after unilateral ureteric obstruction, a model of chronic renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis and dysfunction. In cultured renal NRK52E cells, exposure to TGF-beta1 induced EMT and apoptosis, major causes of renal fibrosis and tubular atrophy, respectively. Exposure to a pan-caspase inhibitor (ZVAD-FMK) prevented TGF-beta1-induced apoptosis but did not reduce EMT. In contrast, selective HSP72 expression in vitro inhibited EMT caused by TGF-beta1 as indicated by preserving the E-cadherin expression level and alpha-smooth muscle actin induction. Small interfering RNA directed against HSP72 blocked the cytoprotective effects of HSP72 overexpression on EMT in TGF-beta1-exposed cells. Taken together, our data indicate that HSP72 ameliorates renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis in obstructive nephropathy by inhibiting both renal tubular epithelial cell apoptosis and EMT.

Actin filament organization is required for proper cAMP-dependent activation of CFTR

Previous studies have indicated a role of the actin cytoskeleton in the regulation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) ion channel. However, the exact molecular nature of this regulation is still largely unknown. In this report human epithelial CFTR was expressed in human melanoma cells genetically devoid of the filamin homologue actin-cross-linking protein ABP-280 [ABP(-)]. cAMP stimulation of ABP(-) cells or cells genetically rescued with ABP-280 cDNA [ABP(+)] was without effect on whole cell Cl(-) currents. In ABP(-) cells expressing CFTR, cAMP was also without effect on Cl(-) conductance. In contrast, cAMP induced a 10-fold increase in the diphenylamine-2-carboxylate (DPC)-sensitive whole cell Cl(-) currents of ABP(+)/CFTR(+) cells. Further, in cells expressing both CFTR and a truncated form of ABP-280 unable to cross-link actin filaments, cAMP was also without effect on CFTR activation. Dialysis of ABP-280 or filamin through the patch pipette, however, resulted in a DPC-inhibitable increase in the whole cell currents of ABP(-)/CFTR(+) cells. At the single-channel level, protein kinase A plus ATP activated single Cl(-) channels only in excised patches from ABP(+)/CFTR(+) cells. Furthermore, filamin alone also induced Cl(-) channel activity in excised patches of ABP(-)/CFTR(+) cells. The present data indicate that an organized actin cytoskeleton is required for cAMP-dependent activation of CFTR.Previous studies have indicated a role of the actin cytoskeleton in the regulation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) ion channel. However, the exact molecular nature of this regulation is still largely unknown. In this report human epithelial CFTR was expressed in human melanoma cells genetically devoid of the filamin homologue actin-cross-linking protein ABP-280 [ABP(-)]. cAMP stimulation of ABP(-) cells or cells genetically rescued with ABP-280 cDNA [ABP(+)] was without effect on whole cell Cl- currents. In ABP(-) cells expressing CFTR, cAMP was also without effect on Cl- conductance. In contrast, cAMP induced a 10-fold increase in the diphenylamine-2-carboxylate (DPC)-sensitive whole cell Cl- currents of ABP(+)/CFTR(+) cells. Further, in cells expressing both CFTR and a truncated form of ABP-280 unable to cross-link actin filaments, cAMP was also without effect on CFTR activation. Dialysis of ABP-280 or filamin through the patch pipette, however, resulted in a DPC-inhibitable increase in the whole cell currents of ABP(-)/CFTR(+) cells. At the single-channel level, protein kinase A plus ATP activated single Cl-channels only in excised patches from ABP(+)/CFTR(+) cells. Furthermore, filamin alone also induced Cl- channel activity in excised patches of ABP(-)/CFTR(+) cells. The present data indicate that an organized actin cytoskeleton is required for cAMP-dependent activation of CFTR.

HSP72 Inhibits Smad3 Activation and Nuclear Translocation in Renal Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition

Although heat shock protein 72 (HSP72) ameliorates renal tubulointerstitial fibrosis by inhibiting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), the underlying mechanism is unknown. Because Smad proteins transduce TGF-beta signaling from the cytosol to the nucleus and HSP72 assists in protein folding and facilitates nuclear translocation, we investigated whether HSP72 inhibits TGF-beta-induced EMT by modulating Smad expression, activation, and nuclear translocation. To evaluate the roles of distinct HSP72 structural domains in these processes, we constructed vectors that expressed wild-type HSP72 or mutants lacking either the peptide-binding domain (HSP72-DeltaPBD), which is responsible for substrate binding and refolding, or the nuclear localization signal (HSP72-DeltaNLS). Overexpression of wild-type HSP72 or HSP72-DeltaNLS inhibited TGF-beta1-induced EMT, but HSP72-DeltaPBD did not, suggesting a critical role for the PBD in this inhibition. HSP72 overexpression inhibited TGF-beta1-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of Smad3 and p-Smad3, but not Smad2; these inhibitory effects required the PBD but not the NLS. Coimmunoprecipitation assays suggested a physical interaction between Smad3 and the PBD. siRNA knockdown of endogenous HSP72 enhanced both TGF-beta1-induced Smad3 phosphorylation and EMT and confirmed the interaction of HSP72 with both Smad3 and p-Smad3. In vivo, induction of HSP72 by geranylgeranylacetone suppressed Smad3 phosphorylation in renal tubular cells after unilateral ureteral obstruction. In conclusion, HSP72 inhibits EMT in renal epithelial cells primarily by exerting domain-specific effects on Smad3 activation and nuclear translocation.

hsp72 inhibits focal adhesion kinase degradation in ATP-depleted renal epithelial cells.

Prior heat stress (HS) or the selective overexpression of hsp72 prevents apoptosis caused by exposure to metabolic inhibitors by protecting the mitochondrial membrane and partially reducing caspase-3 activation. Focal adhesion kinase (FAK), a tyrosine kinase, exhibits anti-apoptotic properties and is a potential target for degradation by caspase-3. This study tested the hypothesis that hsp72 interacts with FAK, preventing caspase-3-mediated degradation during ATP depletion. ATP depletion (5 mmNaCN and 5 mm 2-deoxy-d-glucose in the absence of medium glucose) caused FAK degradation within 15 min. FAK degradation was completely prevented by a caspase-3-specific inhibitor. HS induced the accumulation of hsp72, increased the interaction between hsp72 and FAK, and significantly inhibited FAK degradation during ATP depletion. Selective overexpression of wild-type hsp72 (but not hsp72ΔEEVD) reproduced the protective effects of HS on FAK cleavage. Purified hsp72 prevented the degradation of FAK by caspase-3 in vitro in a dose-dependent manner without affecting caspase-3 activity. Interaction between hsp72 and FAK is critical because both exogenous ATP and deletion of the substrate-binding site decreased protection of FAK by hsp72. These data indicate that FAK is an early target of injury in cells exposed to metabolic inhibitors and demonstrate that hsp72 reduces caspase-3-mediated proteolysis of FAK, an anti-apoptotic protein.

Heat Shock Protein 72 Enhances Autophagy as a Protective Mechanism in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Peritonitis in Rats

Peritoneal dialysis-related peritonitis causes the denudation of mesothelial cells and, ultimately, membrane integrity alterations and peritoneal dysfunction. Because heat shock protein 72 (HSP72) confers protection against apoptosis and because autophagy mediates survival in response to cellular stresses, we examined whether autophagy contributes to HSP72-mediated cytoprotection in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced peritonitis. Exposure of cultured peritoneal mesothelial cells to LPS resulted first in autophagy and later, apoptosis. Inhibition of autophagy by 3-methyladenine or Beclin-1 small-interfering RNA sensitized cells to apoptosis and abolished the antiapoptotic effect of HSP72, suggesting that autophagy activation acts as a prosurvival mechanism. Overexpression of HSP72 augmented autophagy through c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation and Beclin-1 up-regulation. Suppression of JNK activity reversed HSP72-mediated Beclin-1 up-regulation and autophagy, indicating that HSP72-mediated autophagy is JNK dependent. In a rat model of LPS-associated peritonitis, autophagy occurred before apoptosis in peritoneum. Up-regulation of HSP72 by geranylgeranylacetone increased autophagy, inhibited apoptosis, and attenuated peritoneal injury, and these effects were blunted by down-regulation of HSP72 with quercetin. Additionally, blocking autophagy by chloroquine promoted apoptosis and aggravated LPS-associated peritoneal dysfunction. Thus, HSP72 protects peritoneum from LPS-induced mesothelial cells injury, at least in part by enhancing JNK activation-dependent autophagy and inhibiting apoptosis. These findings imply that HSP72 induction might be a potential therapy for peritonitis.

Heat shock protein 72 suppresses apoptosis by increasing the stability of X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein in renal ischemia/reperfusion injury

X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) negatively regulates apoptotic pathways at a post-mitochondrial level. XIAP functions by directly binding and inhibiting activation of specific caspases. Upon apoptotic stimuli, mitochondrial second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (Smac)/direct IAP-binding protein with low PI (DIABLO) is released into the cytosol, which results in displacement of XIAP from caspases. Heat shock protein 72 (HSP72), an anti-apoptotic protein, prevents mitochondrial injury resulting from acute renal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), its role in Smac/DIABLO and XIAP signaling remains to be elucidated. In the present study, the hypothesis that HSP72 prevents XIAP degradation in vivo and in vitro was assessed. To this purpose, a rat model of I/R injury was used to investigate the renoprotective role of HSP72 by treatment with geranylgeranylacetone (GGA), a specific inducer of HSP72. The mechanism of the cytoprotective properties of HSP72 was also investigated in vitro using adenovirus-mediated overexpression of HSP72 in adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-depleted human kidney 2 (HK-2) cells. Pre-conditioning rats with GGA attenuated renal tubular cell damage, reduced cell apoptosis, preserved XIAP protein content and improved renal function following I/R injury. An in vitro study was performed in which cells were transiently exposed to 5 mM sodium cyanide in a glucose-free medium in order to induce apoptosis. Compared with the control, overexpression of HSP72 inhibited Smac/DIABLO release from the mitochondria and increased levels of XIAP and pro-caspase 3 in ATP-depleted HK-2 cells. In addition, HSP72 interacted with Smac/DIABLO. The present data demonstrates that HSP72 preserves renal function in I/R injury through its anti-apoptotic effects, which act by suppressing mitochondrial Smac/DIABLO release and preserving XIAP protein content.

Heat Shock Protein 72 Antagonizes STAT3 Signaling to Inhibit Fibroblast Accumulation in Renal Fibrogenesis

Heat shock protein 72 (HSP72) has been shown to attenuate unilateral ureteral obstruction-induced kidney fibrosis. It remains unknown whether HSP72 has direct effects on fibroblast proliferation in the renal fibrotic evolution. Herein, we first confirmed that increased HSP72 expression occurred in fibrotic human kidneys. Using three different animal models of kidney fibrosis, pharmacological down-regulation or genetic deletion of endogenous HSP72 expression exacerbated STAT3 phosphorylation, fibroblast proliferation, and tubulointerstitial fibrosis. In contrast, treatment with geranylgeranyl acetone, a specific inducer of HSP72, reduced phosphorylated STAT3 and protected animals from kidney fibrosis. In cultured renal interstitial fibroblasts, overexpression of HSP72 blocked transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1-induced cell activation and proliferation, as evidenced by inhibiting expression of α-smooth muscle actin, fibronectin, and collagen I/III, as well as by reducing cell numbers and DNA synthesis. Mechanical studies showed that overexpressed HSP72 attenuated TGF-β-induced phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of STAT3 and its downstream protein expression. However, siRNA knockdown of HSP72 increased TGF-β-induced STAT3 activity and fibroblast proliferation. Ectopic expression of a constitutively active STAT3 conferred resistance to HSP72 inhibition of fibroblast proliferation. Thus, HSP72 blocks fibroblast activation and proliferation in renal fibrosis via targeting the STAT3 pathway and may serve as a novel therapeutic agent for chronic kidney disease regardless of the etiology.