Yingjie Wang

Gekko japonicus genome reveals evolution of adhesive toe pads and tail regeneration

Reptiles are the most morphologically and physiologically diverse tetrapods, and have undergone 300 million years of adaptive evolution. Within the reptilian tetrapods, geckos possess several interesting features, including the ability to regenerate autotomized tails and to climb on smooth surfaces. Here we sequence the genome of Gekko japonicus (Schlegels Japanese Gecko) and investigate genetic elements related to its physiology. We obtain a draft G. japonicus genome sequence of 2.55 Gb and annotated 22,487 genes. Comparative genomic analysis reveals specific gene family expansions or reductions that are associated with the formation of adhesive setae, nocturnal vision and tail regeneration, as well as the diversification of olfactory sensation. The obtained genomic data provide robust genetic evidence of adaptive evolution in reptiles.

HMGB1 Protein Does Not Mediate the Inflammatory Response in Spontaneous Spinal Cord Regeneration A HINT FOR CNS REGENERATION

Background: HMGB1 in spontaneously regenerating spinal cord does not trigger the inflammation in contrast to those in injured mammalian cords. Results: Gecko HMGB1 paralogs failed to interact with TLR2 and TLR4 but do with RAGE receptors to activate the signaling pathway. Conclusion: HMGB1 is beneficial for spontaneous spinal cord regeneration by eliciting negligible inflammation and promoting oligodendrocyte migration. Significance: HMGB1 displays distinct functions in regenerative vertebrates. Uncontrolled, excessive inflammation contributes to the secondary tissue damage of traumatic spinal cord, and HMGB1 is highlighted for initiation of a vicious self-propagating inflammatory circle by release from necrotic cells or immune cells. Several regenerative-competent vertebrates have evolved to circumvent the second damages during the spontaneous spinal cord regeneration with an unknown HMGB1 regulatory mechanism. By genomic surveys, we have revealed that two paralogs of HMGB1 are broadly retained from fish in the phylogeny. However, their spatial-temporal expression and effects, as shown in lowest amniote gecko, were tightly controlled in order that limited inflammation was produced in spontaneous regeneration. Two paralogs from gecko HMGB1 (gHMGB1) yielded distinct injury and infectious responses, with gHMGB1b significantly up-regulated in the injured cord. The intracellular gHMGB1b induced less release of inflammatory cytokines than gHMGB1a in macrophages, and the effects could be shifted by exchanging one amino acid in the inflammatory domain. Both intracellular proteins were able to mediate neuronal programmed apoptosis, which has been indicated to produce negligible inflammatory responses. In vivo studies demonstrated that the extracellular proteins could not trigger a cascade of the inflammatory cytokines in the injured spinal cord. Signal transduction analysis found that gHMGB1 proteins could not bind with cell surface receptors TLR2 and TLR4 to activate inflammatory signaling pathway. However, they were able to interact with the receptor for advanced glycation end products to potentiate oligodendrocyte migration by activation of both NFκB and Rac1/Cdc42 signaling. Our results reveal that HMGB1 does not mediate the inflammatory response in spontaneous spinal cord regeneration, but it promotes CNS regeneration.

Gecko CD59 Is Implicated in Proximodistal Identity during Tail Regeneration

Several adult reptiles, such as Gekko japonicus, have the ability to precisely re-create a missing tail after amputation. To ascertain the associated acquisition of positional information from blastemal cells and the underlying molecular mechanism of tail regeneration, a candidate molecule CD59 was isolated from gecko. CD59 transcripts displayed a graded expression in the adult gecko spinal cord with the highest level in the anterior segment, with a stable expression along the normal tail. After tail amputation, CD59 transcripts in the spinal cord proximal to the injury sites increased markedly at 1 day and 2 weeks; whereas in the regenerating blastema, strong CD59 positive signals were detected in the blastemal cells anterior to the blastema, with a gradual decrease along the proximodistal (PD) axis. When treated with RA following amputation, CD59 transcripts in the blastema were up-regulated. PD confrontation assays revealed that the proximal blastema engulfed the distal one after in vitro culture, and rabbit-anti human CD59 antibody was able to block this PD engulfment. Overexpression of the CD59 during tail regeneration causes distal blastemal cells to translocate to a more proximal location. Our results suggest that position identity is not restricted to amphibian limb regeneration, but has already been established in tail blastema of reptiles. The CD59, a cell surface molecule, acted as a determinant of proximal–distal cell identity.

Involvement of gecko SNAP25b in spinal cord regeneration by promoting outgrowth and elongation of neurites.

SNARE complex mediates cellular membrane fusion events essential for neurotransmitter release and synaptogenesis. SNAP25, a member of the SNARE proteins, plays critical roles during the development of the central nervous system via regulation by alternative splicing and protein kinase phosphorylation. To date, little information is available regarding the protein in the spinal cord regeneration, especially for the postnatal highly expressed isoform SNAP25b. In the present study, we characterized gecko SNAP25b, which shared high identity with those of other vertebrates. Expression of gecko SNAP25b was temporally upregulated in both neurons of spinal cord and forming ependymal tube following tail amputation, coinciding with the occurrence of regenerate re-innervation. Overexpression of gecko wild type SNAP25b in the SH-SY5Y and undifferentiated PC12 cells promoted the elongation and outgrowth of neurites, while mutant constructs at Serine(187) resulted in differential effects for which S187A had a promoting role. Knockdown of endogenous SNAP25b affected the formation of neurites, which could be rescued by overexpression of SNAP25b. FM1-43 staining revealed that transfection of S187E mutant construct reduced the recruitment of vesicles. In addition, transfection of gecko SNAP25b in the astrocyte, which is absent from neuronal specific VAMP2, was capable of enhancing process elongation, indicating a potential for various alternative protein combinations. Taken together, our data suggest that gecko SNAP25b is involved in spinal cord regeneration by promoting outgrowth and elongation of neurites in a more extensive protein binding manner.

Macrophage migration inhibitory factor activates inflammatory responses of astrocytes through interaction with CD74 receptor

Astrocytes, the major glial cell population of the central nervous system (CNS), play important physiological roles related to CNS homeostasis. Growing evidence demonstrates that astrocytes trigger innate immune responses under challenge of a variety of proinflammatory cytokines. Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), a proinflammatory cytokine mainly secreted from monocytes/macrophages, is involved in inflammation-associated pathophysiology. Here, we displayed that expression of MIF significantly increased following spinal cord injury, in colocalization with microglia and astrocytes. MIF elicited inflammatory responses of astrocytes via activation of CD74 receptor and extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK) pathway. Transcriptome analysis revealed that inflammation-related factors cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (Ch25h) and phospholipase A2-IIA (Pla2g2a), downstream of MIF/CD74 axis, were potentially implicated in the mediating inflammatory response of astrocytes. Our results provided a new target for interference of CNS inflammation after insults.

Inhibition of gecko GSK-3β promotes elongation of neurites and oligodendrocyte processes but decreases the proliferation of blastemal cells†‡

GSK‐3β signaling is involved in regulation of both neuronal and glial cell functions, and interference of the signaling affects central nervous system (CNS) development and regeneration. Thus, GSK‐3β was proposed to be an important therapeutic target for promoting functional recovery of adult CNS injuries. To further clarify the regulatory function of the kinase on the CNS regeneration, we characterized gecko GSK‐3β and determined the effects of GSK‐3β inactivation on the neuronal and glial cell lines, as well as on the gecko tail (including spinal cord) regeneration. Gecko GSK‐3β shares 91.7–96.7% identity with those of other vertebrates, and presented higher expression abundance in brain and spinal cord. The kinase strongly colocalized with the oligodendrocytes while less colocalized with neurons in the spinal cord. Phosphorylated GSK‐3β (pGSK‐3β) levels decreased gradually during the normally regenerating spinal cord ranging from L13 to the 6th caudal vertebra. Lithium injection increased the pGSK‐3β levels of the corresponding spinal cord segments, and in vitro experiments on neurons and oligodendrocyte cell line revealed that the elevation of pGSK‐3β promoted elongation of neurites and oligodendrocyte processes. In the normally regenerate tails, pGSK‐3β kept stable in 2 weeks, whereas decreased at 4 weeks. Injection of lithium led to the elevation of pGSK‐3β levels time‐dependently, however destructed the regeneration of the tail including spinal cord. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) staining demonstrated that inactivation of GSK‐3β decreased the proliferation of blastemal cells. Our results suggested that species‐specific regulation of GSK‐3β was indispensable for the complete regeneration of CNS. J. Cell. Biochem. 113: 1842–1851, 2012.

Reactive oxygen species generated from skeletal muscles are required for gecko tail regeneration.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) participate in various physiological and pathological functions following generation from different types of cells. Here we explore ROS functions on spontaneous tail regeneration using gecko model. ROS were mainly produced in the skeletal muscle after tail amputation, showing a temporal increase as the regeneration proceeded. Inhibition of the ROS production influenced the formation of autophagy in the skeletal muscles, and as a consequence, the length of the regenerating tail. Transcriptome analysis has shown that NADPH oxidase (NOX2) and the subunits (p40phox and p47phox) are involved in the ROS production. ROS promoted the formation of autophagy through regulation of both ULK and MAPK activities. Our results suggest that ROS produced by skeletal muscles are required for the successful gecko tail regeneration.

The HMGB1 signaling pathway activates the inflammatory response in Schwann cells

Schwann cells are not only myelinating cells, but also function as immune cells and express numerous innate pattern recognition receptors, including the Toll-like receptors. Injury to peripheral nerves activates an inflammatory response in Schwann cells. However, it is unclear whether specific endogenous damage-associated molecular pattern molecules are involved in the inflammatory response following nerve injury. In the present study, we demonstrate that a key damage-associated molecular pattern molecule, high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), is upregulated following rat sciatic nerve axotomy, and we show colocalization of the protein with Schw-ann cells. HMGB1 alone could not enhance expression of Toll-like receptors or the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE), but was able to facilitate migration of Schwann cells. When Schwann cells were treated with HMGB1 together with lipopolysaccharide, the expression levels of Toll-like receptors and RAGE, as well as inflammatory cytokines were upregulated. Our novel findings demonstrate that the HMGB1 pathway activates the inflammatory response in Schwann cells following peripheral nerve injury.

CD59 mediates cartilage patterning during spontaneous tail regeneration

The regeneration-competent adult animals have ability to regenerate their lost complex appendages with a near-perfect replica, owing to the positional identity acquired by the progenitor cells in the blastema, i.e. the blastemal cells. CD59, a CD59/Ly6 family member, has been identified as a regulator of positional identity in the tail blastemal cells of Gekko japonicus. To determine whether this function of CD59 is unique to the regenerative amniote(s) and how CD59 mediates PD axis patterning during tail regeneration, we examined its protective role on the complement-mediated cell lysis and intervened CD59 expression in the tail blastemal cells using an in vivo model of adenovirus transfection. Our data revealed that gecko CD59 was able to inhibit complement-mediated cell lysis. Meanwhile, CD59 functioned on positional identity through expression in cartilage precursor cells. Intervening positional identity by overexpression or siRNA knockdown of CD59 resulted in abnormal cartilaginous cone patterning due to the decreased differentiation of blastemal cells to cartilage precursor cells. The cartilage formation-related genes were found to be under the regulation of CD59. These results indicate that CD59, an evolutionarily transitional molecule linking immune and regenerative regulation, affects tail regeneration by mediating cartilage patterning.

The Regenerating Spinal Cord of Gecko Maintains Unaltered Expression of β-Catenin Following Tail Amputation

The Wingless/Integrated (Wnt) signaling pathway plays important roles in central nervous system (CNS) development and regeneration, and β-catenin, the central component, has been considered in association with adult neurogenesis. To decipher its roles on spontaneous spinal cord regeneration, we cloned β-catenin from Gekko japonicus and examined its function in regenerating spinal cord. The protein was localized in the neurons and oligodendrocytes and maintained a stable expression levels during the spinal cord regeneration. The temporal pattern of expression has been found to be completely distinct with those of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β). Experiments of gain-of-function by overexpression of full length β-catenin or stabilized ΔN90-β-catenin revealed that the accumulated protein attenuates the elongation of neurites and oligodendrocyte process. Knockdown of endogenous β-catenin, however, decreased proliferation of oligodendrocytes by affecting expression of downstream lef1 and c-jun. The upregulated extracellular matrix fibronectin in injured cord was found to be inefficient in regulation of β-catenin expression. Our results suggest that a tightly regulated stable expression of β-catenin is required for the spontaneous spinal cord regeneration.