Yoko Yamamoto

Cultural Capital in East Asian Educational Systems: The Case of Japan

Cultural capital has been an important but often elusive concept in the study of educational processes and social class reproduction. The authors suggest that this is partly because a country’s educational system and ways of evaluating students at different educational transitions set the context for the mechanisms through which embodied and objectified cultural capital operate. Moreover, parents in some societies invest in children’s “shadow education” (extracurricular classes or tutoring) at key educational transitions, and it is not clear whether this replaces cultural capital or supplements it. The authors use data from Japan, a country whose educational system depends heavily but not exclusively on standardized examinations, to examine how cultural capital affects students’ progress at three points in the educational process that involve different relative emphasis on examinations and on teachers’ subjective judgment. In this way, the authors clarify the ways that embodied and objectified cultural capital exert effects on educational outcomes.

Parenting Self-Efficacy and Social Support in Japan and the United States

To understand the conditions that give rise to parenting self-efficacy in Japan and the United States, the authors have investigated its relation to the perceptions of support available to mothers of children in the final year of preschool (N = 235; n = 121 in United States, n = 114 in Japan). Hierarchical regression analysis indicates that in both countries, women who experience higher parenting self-efficacy report more positive childhood memories of parental support and greater satisfaction with husband’s and friends’ support. Mothers in the United States are significantly more self-efficacious than are mothers in Japan, even after controlling for the effects of the support predictors. A follow-up mediational analysis reveals that Japanese women’s lower levels of parenting self-efficacy are partially attributable to their low satisfaction with husband’s support.

Why Attend School? Chinese Immigrant and European American Preschoolers' Views and Outcomes.

The developing views of the purposes of school learning (PSLs) and related achievement among immigrant Chinese preschoolers and their European American (EA) age-mates were examined. Both culture and socioeconomic status (SES) were considered simultaneously, an often neglected research approach to studying Asian children. One hundred and fifty 4-year-olds-50 each of middle-class Chinese (CHM), low-income Chinese (CHL), and EA children-completed 2 story beginnings about school and were also tested for their language and math achievement. Results showed that 4-year-olds held sophisticated PSLs, ranging from intellectual to social and affect benefits. Large cultural and SES differences also emerged. CHM children mentioned more adult expectation and seriousness of learning than EA children who expressed more positive affect for self and compliance with adults. CHL children mentioned fewest PSLs. Achievement scores for oral expression of both immigrant groups were significantly lower than those of EA children despite similar reading and math achievement. Controlling for culture and SES, the authors found that childrens articulated intellectual, but not other purposes, uniquely predicted their achievement in all tested domains. Cultural and SES influences on immigrant children are discussed.

Social Class and Japanese Mothers' Support of Young Children's Education: A Qualitative Study.

The impact of social class backgrounds on young children’s educational experiences has attracted increasing attention in early childhood research. However, few longitudinal studies related to social class and parental involvement in young children’s education are available, especially in East Asian contexts. In this longitudinal qualitative study, I examined middle-class and working-class mothers’ beliefs related to education and processes through which they support their children’s education from preschool to second grade in Japan. Sixteen Japanese mothers were recruited from preschools and four in-depth interviews along with home visits were conducted over 3 years. Findings of this study demonstrated that both middle-class and working-class mothers hoped that their children would do well academically, but their beliefs related to parenting roles and development of the children’s learning interest differed. Such distinctive maternal beliefs affected their ways of supporting their children’s education in everyday contexts.

Does Socioeconomic Status Matter for Chinese Immigrants’ Academic Socialization? Family Environment, Parental Engagement, and Preschoolers’ Outcomes

Families’ academic socialization mediates how socioeconomic status (SES) affects children’s achievement. However, little is known about whether cultural values and family cohesion could buffer negative effects of low SES. We examined parental academic socialization and children’s achievement in 220 low- and middle-SES Chinese immigrant families with four-year-olds. Low-SES parents showed less stressful family environments and stronger beliefs about parental responsibility for education. However, middle-SES parents provided more reading engagement and enrichment activities. Reading engagement and SES were significantly associated with children’s academic performance. These findings demonstrate low-SES families’ strengths but suggest the need to provide more support for such families.

Quiet in the Eye of the Beholder: Teacher Perceptions of Asian Immigrant Children

Cultural norms and practices that are brought by immigrant families may engender advantages or disadvantages to immigrant children’s development and school experiences. Extensive research shows that Asian immigrant children achieve well in general owing to the ways Asian immigrant families socialize their children. However, research has also found Asian children to be shy, quiet or silent in class and school. While quietness can be viewed as a positive attitude which reflects students’ attentive listening and sensitivity to others in East Asia, it may be perceived negatively in Western schools, where self-expression is valued. The present study examined teachers’ perceptions about Chinese immigrant children’s verbal expressions compared to European Americans’ (EA) at an early stage. We also examined how teachers’ assessment of children’s verbal expression is related to the child’s school adjustment, peer relations, learning engagement, and academic performance in two distinctive school contexts: Asian-dominant and EA-dominant preschools. Data included achievement tests with 166 4-year-olds (59 low-socioeconomic status Chinese, 49 middle-class Chinese, and 58 middle-class EA) and surveys from their teachers. Results demonstrated that teachers viewed Chinese immigrant children to be significantly quieter and less expressive than EA children. In Asian-dominant preschools, quietness was associated with better school adjustment and learning engagement. In EA-dominant preschools, Chinese immigrant children’s quietness was associated with negative peer relations and learning engagement. Self-expressions or quietness was not correlated with children’s academic performance after controlling for socioeconomic status. We present hypotheses and pathways to interpret and explain our findings.

Family Contexts of Academic Socialization: The Role of Culture, Ethnicity, and Socioeconomic Status

Family contexts of academic socialization have received growing attention as a way to facilitate the educational development of children and adolescents. The goal of this special issue is to present comparative and complex perspectives about the roles of culture, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status (SES) in multifaceted academic socialization processes from preschool to college. This introduction discusses the roles of culture, ethnicity, and SES in family academic socialization processes, summarizes various themes across the five articles in this issue, presents brief overviews of each article, and addresses future directions of these lines of research.

Gender and social class differences in Japanese mothers’ beliefs about children's education and socialisation

Despite increasing rates of university attendance among women, a significant gender gap remains in socialisation and educational processes in Japan. To understand why and how gender-distinctive socialisation processes persist, this study aimed to examine both middle-class and working-class mothers’ beliefs about gender, education, and childrens development. Qualitative analyses were conducted on in-depth interviews with 16 Japanese mothers with preschool children who participated in the research study for three years. The meaning of education differed depending on the childrens gender and social class context. While there was a social class difference in mothers’ expectations of their daughters’ educational attainment, the majority of women in this study saw their daughters as caregivers of family members in the future. This study also demonstrates the dilemmas and mixed messages in womens narratives in relation to gender norms and the processes of raising their children.

The Socialization Areas in Which European American and Chinese Immigrant Mothers Express Warmth and Control

SYNOPSIS Objective. The present study examined specific situations in which European American and Chinese immigrant mothers to the United States expressed warmth and control with their young children. Design. Ninety-four European American and 90 Chinese immigrant mothers of children ages 3–6 from middle-class families were interviewed. Results. European American and Chinese immigrant mothers viewed children’s independence, educational, social, emotional, and moral development as important. Specifically, mothers from both cultural groups discussed expressing warmth toward their children when: (1) structuring their children’s daily schedules and routines, (2) doing activities with their children, (3) their children experience difficulties, (4) being close, showing intimacy and communicating with their children, (5) their children engage in positive behaviors, and (6) educating their children. Mothers also similarly discussed utilizing control when: (1) structuring their children’s daily schedules and routines, (2) ensuring their child’s safety, (3) their children engage in difficult behaviors, (4) their children interact with others, (5) educating their children, and (6) their children experience moral-related issues. However, mothers differentially endorsed four out of six situations of when they expressed warmth and four out of six situations of when they exerted control. Specifically, European American mothers emphasized expressing warmth and control about Western cultural values of individuality, open-expression, and respect. In contrast, Chinese immigrant mothers emphasized expressing warmth and control about psychological interdependence and Confucian-based values of group harmony and child obedience. Conclusions. This study highlights culturally shared and distinct socialization priorities that European American and Chinese immigrant mothers emphasize during early childhood.

Immigrant Children’s Schooling and Family Processes in Japan: Trends, Challenges, and Implications

Japan has faced educational challenges associated with diversifying immigrant students for the last few decades since the government opened up the door to unskilled migrant workers. Despite the country’s strong emphasis on egalitarian education, a large academic gap between Japanese and immigrant students suggests unequal distribution of educational opportunities. The goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of immigrant children’s educational experiences and family processes in Japan. After presenting demographic and descriptive information about immigrants and immigrant students in Japan, I present trends and issues related to immigrant children’s academic and school experiences. Based on literature review, I point out structural elements that bring challenges to immigrant students’ academic processes and immigrant family efforts in supporting their children’s education in Japan. The chapter concludes with discussion, suggestions for future studies, and recommendations for educational practices.