Yongcheng Long

The effect of landscape features on population genetic structure in Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) implies an anthropogenic genetic discontinuity.

The Tibetan Plateau is one of the top 10 biodiversity hotspots in the world and acts as a modern harbour for many rare species because of its relatively pristine state. In this article, we report a landscape genetic study on the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti), a primate endemic to the Tibetan Plateau. DNA was extracted from blood, tissue and fecal samples of 135 wild individuals representing 11 out of 15 extant monkey groups. Ten microsatellite loci were used to characterize patterns of genetic diversity. The most striking feature of the population structure is the presence of five subpopulations with distinct genetic backgrounds and unique spatial regions. The population structure of R. bieti appears to be shaped by anthropogenic landscape features as gene flow between subpopulations is strongly impeded by arable land, highways and human habitation. A partial Mantel test showed that 36.23% (r = 0.51, P = 0.01) of the genetic distance was explained by habitat gaps after controlling for the effect of geographical distance. Only 4.92% of the genetic distance was explained by geographical distance in the partial Mantel test, and no significant correlation was found. Estimation of population structure history indicates that environmental change during the last glacial maximum and human impacts since the Holocene, or a combination of both, have shaped the observed population structure of R. bieti. Increasing human activity on the Plateau, especially that resulting in habitat fragmentation, is becoming an important factor in shaping the genetic structure and evolutionary potential of species inhabiting this key ecosystem.

Phylogeography and population structure of the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) inferred from mitochondrial control region DNA sequence analysis

Rhinopithecus bieti, the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey, is the nonhuman primate with the highest altitudinal distribution and is also one of the 25 most globally endangered primate species. Currently, R. bieti is found in forests between 3000 and 4500 m above sea level, within a narrow area on the Tibetan Plateau between the Yangtze and Mekong rivers, where it is suffering from loss of habitat and shrinking population size (~1500). To assess the genetic diversity within this species, its population structure and to infer its evolutionary history, we sequenced 401 bp of the hypervariable I (HVI) segment from the mitochondrial DNA control region (CR) for 157 individuals from 11 remnant patches throughout the fragmented distribution area. Fifty‐two variable sites were observed and 30 haplotypes were defined. Compared with other primate species, R. bieti cannot be regarded as a taxon with low genetic diversity. Phylogenetic analysis partitioned haplotypes into two divergent haplogroups (A and B). Haplotypes from the two mitochondrial clades were found to be mixed in some patches although the distribution of haplotypes displayed local homogeneity, implying a strong population structure within R. bieti. Analysis of molecular variance detected significant differences among the different geographical regions, suggesting that R. bieti should be separated into three management units (MUs) for conservation. Based on our results, it can be hypothesized that the genetic history of R. bieti includes an initial, presumably allopatric divergence between clades A and B 1.0–0.7 million years ago (Ma), which might have been caused by the Late Cenozoic uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, secondary contact after this divergence as a result of a population expansion 0.16–0.05 Ma, and population reduction and habitat fragmentation in the very recent past.

Effectiveness of China’s National Forest Protection Program and Nature Reserves

There is profound interest in knowing the degree to which Chinas institutions are capable of protecting its natural forests and biodiversity in the face of economic and political change. Chinas 2 most important forest-protection policies are its National Forest Protection Program (NFPP) and its national-level nature reserves (NNRs). The NFPP was implemented in 2000 in response to deforestation-caused flooding. We undertook the first national, quantitative assessment of the NFPP and NNRs to examine whether the NFPP achieved its deforestation-reduction target and whether the NNRs deter deforestation altogether. We used MODIS data to estimate forest cover and loss across mainland China (2000-2010). We also assembled the first-ever polygon dataset for Chinas forested NNRs (n = 237, 74,030 km(2) in 2000) and used both conventional and covariate-matching approaches to compare deforestation rates inside and outside NNRs (2000-2010). In 2000, 1.765 million km(2) or 18.7% of mainland China was forested (12.3% with canopy cover of ≥70%)) or woodland (6.4% with canopy cover <70% and tree plus shrub cover ≥40%). By 2010, 480,203 km(2) of forest and woodland had been lost, an annual deforestation rate of 2.7%. Forest-only loss was 127,473 km(2) (1.05% annually). In the NFPP provinces, the forest-only loss rate was 0.62%, which was 3.3 times lower than in the non-NFPP provinces. Moreover, the Landsat data suggest that these loss rates are overestimates due to large MODIS pixel size. Thus, China appears to have achieved, and even exceeded, its target of reducing deforestation to 1.1% annually in the NFPP provinces. About two-thirds of Chinas NNRs were effective in protecting forest cover (prevented loss 4073 km(2) unmatched approach; 3148 km(2) matched approach), and within-NNR deforestation rates were higher in provinces with higher overall deforestation. Our results indicate that Chinas existing institutions can protect domestic forest cover.

Measuring Daily Ranging distances of Rhinopithecus bieti via a Global Positioning System Collar at Jinsichang, China: A Methodological Consideration

There are few data on the daily ranging distances of Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti). We fitted 1 adult male from a natural group at Jinsichang in China’s Yunnan Province with a global positioning system (GPS) collar and tracked him from December 2003 to October 2004 to estimate the daily ranging distances of the group. The total acquisition rate of the GPS collar was 82.2%, which indicates that one can use GPS collars to track the species efficiently in high-altitude, temperate, coniferous forest. We obtained group locations or fixes at 5 predetermined times during the day. The sleeping sites of the subjects are the key points to estimate the day range. We compared 2 measures of day range: the 2-point straight-line displacement and the multipoint cumulative daily ranging distance. Straight-line displacement between 2 consecutive mornings or 2 consecutive evenings can substitute for that between the morning sleeping site and the evening sleeping site. In general, the group does not move at night. The 2 measures of day range yielded different results. The multipoint cumulative daily ranging distance was the method of choice to measure their daily travel costs. The minimum required number of fixes per day was 3. Per statistical evidence, the number of full-day group follows per month influences the estimate of day range of the group and ≥10 d is required to obtain a reliable estimate; 5 d per month might not be enough. We dealt mainly with the methodologic aspects of day range calculations. We did not address functional aspects on the estimate of day range, viz. the influence of vegetation, food distribution patterns, climate change, seasonality, and the monkey group itself.

Optimized spatial priorities for biodiversity conservation in China: a systematic conservation planning perspective.

By addressing several key features overlooked in previous studies, i.e. human disturbance, integration of ecosystem- and species-level conservation features, and principles of complementarity and representativeness, we present the first national-scale systematic conservation planning for China to determine the optimized spatial priorities for biodiversity conservation. We compiled a spatial database on the distributions of ecosystem- and species-level conservation features, and modeled a human disturbance index (HDI) by aggregating information using several socioeconomic proxies. We ran Marxan with two scenarios (HDI-ignored and HDI-considered) to investigate the effects of human disturbance, and explored the geographic patterns of the optimized spatial conservation priorities. Compared to when HDI was ignored, the HDI-considered scenario resulted in (1) a marked reduction (∼9%) in the total HDI score and a slight increase (∼7%) in the total area of the portfolio of priority units, (2) a significant increase (∼43%) in the total irreplaceable area and (3) more irreplaceable units being identified in almost all environmental zones and highly-disturbed provinces. Thus the inclusion of human disturbance is essential for cost-effective priority-setting. Attention should be targeted to the areas that are characterized as moderately-disturbed, <2,000 m in altitude, and/or intermediately- to extremely-rugged in terrain to identify potentially important regions for implementing cost-effective conservation. We delineated 23 primary large-scale priority areas that are significant for conserving Chinas biodiversity, but those isolated priority units in disturbed regions are in more urgent need of conservation actions so as to prevent immediate and severe biodiversity loss. This study presents a spatially optimized national-scale portfolio of conservation priorities – effectively representing the overall biodiversity of China while minimizing conflicts with economic development. Our results offer critical insights for current conservation and strategic land-use planning in China. The approach is transferable and easy to implement by end-users, and applicable for national- and local-scale systematic conservation prioritization practices.

Home range and seasonality of Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys.

Home range studies are essential for understanding an animals behavioral ecology and for making wildlife conservation efficient. The home range of a group of Yunnan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti Milne-Edwards, 1897) was estimated using a global positioning system collar from December 2003 to October 2004 in northern Yunnan Province, China. To measure the ranging area of the study group 1291 animal locations were fixed. Based on the 100% minimum convex polygon method, the home range size was approximately 32.8 km(2) ; based on the grid-cell method it was approximately 17.8 km(2) using a 250-m grid and 23.3 km(2) using a 500-m grid. We assessed seasonal changes in the home range of this monkey population and found a different ranging pattern of from earlier studies. Daily range size was calculated as 4.80 ± 5.81 ha (mean ± standard deviation), with a range of 45.66 ha (0.01-45.67 ha).

Why Does Rhinopithecus bieti Prefer the Highest Elevation Range in Winter? A Test of the Sunshine Hypothesis

Environmental factors that affect spatiotemporal distribution patterns of animals usually include resource availability, temperature, and the risk of predation. However, they do not explain the counterintuitive preference of high elevation range in winter by the black-and-white snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti). We asked whether variation of sunshine along with elevations is the key driving force. To test this hypothesis, we conducted field surveys to demonstrate that there was a statistically significant pattern of high elevation use during winter. We then asked whether this pattern can be explained by certain environmental factors, namely temperature, sunshine duration and solar radiation. Finally, we concluded with a possible ecological mechanism for this pattern. In this study, we employed GIS technology to quantify solar radiation and sunshine duration across the monkeys range. Our results showed that: 1) R. bieti used the high altitude range between 4100–4400 m in winter although the yearly home range spanned from 3500–4500 m; 2) both solar radiation and sunshine duration increased with elevation while temperature decreased with elevation; 3) within the winter range, the use of range was significantly correlated with solar radiation and sunshine duration; 4) monkeys moved to the areas with high solar radiation and duration following a snowfall, where the snow melts faster and food is exposed earlier. We concluded that sunshine was the main factor that influences selection of high elevation habitat for R. bieti in winter. Since some other endotherms in the area exhibit similar winter distributional patterns, we developed a sunshine hypothesis to explain this phenomenon. In addition, our work also represented a new method of integrating GIS models into traditional field ecology research to study spatiotemporal distribution pattern of wildlife. We suggest that further theoretical and empirical studies are necessary for better understanding of sunshine influence on wildlife range use.

The performance of nature reserves in capturing the biological diversity on Hainan Island, China

PurposeThe performance of nature reserves depends on the degree to which they represent a regions full biodiversity. Here, we conducted a study on Hainan Island, China, to assess how well Hainans biodiversity features were captured by existing nature reserves. We also explored the driving forces behind the current protection pattern so as to provide guidelines for improving the islands conservation system.MethodsWe integrated the information on nature reserves, ecological variables, and human activities into a spatial database, then assessed the performance of nature reserves in representing natural variation, vegetation types, and species, and examined the impacts of human activities and land ownership on the current protection pattern.ResultsAbout 8.4% of Hainan Island was protected by nature reserves; the coverage was geographically biased toward its central mountainous areas with higher elevation, rugged terrain, and fertile soils. We found that 60% of the environmental units and 39.4% of the natural vegetation types had more than 10% of their area protected, respectively. Lowlands tended to have higher animal species richness, and the protection for endangered species was less efficient. Nature reserve coverage was negatively correlated with amount of converted habitats, human population density, and road density, and 82.4% of the total reserved area was allocated on state-owned land.ConclusionsNature reserve coverage was not enough to capture lowlands biodiversity features. The current protection pattern was significantly driven by several major conservation targets, human development, planning methods, and land ownership. To improve its conservation system, Hainan should enhance protection in the north and northeast plains and coastal regions, implement systematic planning approaches to define clear visions for guiding future conservation actions, and develop flexible management and funding mechanisms toward sustainable use of natural resources.

Niche Divergence Among Sex and Age Classes in Black-and-White Snub-nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti)

A wide range of dimorphic species exhibit intraspecific differences in feeding ecology and habitat use; however, studies comparing resource partitioning between males and females and between age groups occur mainly at the community and species level. We here classified the main habitat of black-and-white snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) –fir tree crown– into six microhabitats; examined the lichen-load of the microhabitats; and investigated the microhabitat use of age–sex groups within one-male units (OMUs: an adult male, several females, and juveniles) of R. bieti using instantaneous scanning sampling methods to test whether there is resource niche partitioning in social units of this sexually dimorphic primate in a reserve in Yunnan, China. Our results showed that adult females and juveniles often foraged in the outer layer of the fir tree crown, whereas adult males often foraged in the inner layer, closer to the trunk where food abundance was highest. Adult females and juveniles, however, both shifted microhabitat-use patterns to the inner layer of the fir tree crown when the adult male was absent from the tree. We suggested that the preference for and benefit of the central layer of fir tree crown lies in food availability, but that adult male competitively excluded group members. Microhabitat segregation may serve to maximize the fitness of the group members by reducing intragroup competition, while also increasing interindividual distance, thereby reducing the possible effects of scramble competition.

How Human Household Size Affects the Habitat of Black-and-White Snub-Nosed Monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) in Hongla Snow Mountain Nature Reserve in Tibet, China

Human impacts on the environment at local or regional scales largely depend on intrinsic characteristics of the population, such as household size, household number, and human population growth. These demographic factors can vary considerably among ethnic groups sharing similar ecological landscapes, yet the role of traditional cultural practices in shaping local environmental impacts is not well known for many parts of the world. We here quantify land-cover changes and their relation to the habitat of the endangered Rhinopithecus bieti in Tibet, in 2 areas populated by different ethnic groups (polyandrous Tibetans and monogamous Naxi) from 1986 to 2006. Results indicate that habitat of the monkey decreased greatly within our study area over the 20-yr period. Polyandrous and monogamous ethnic communities differed in household size, household number, population growth, and per capita and per household land use. The practice of polyandry by ethnic Tibetan appears to have reduced per capita resource consumption by reducing the growth of overall household number and increasing household size, which can mitigate the negative effects of higher human density and population growth on the environment. Ethnic Tibetan may also reduce land impacts by adhering to Buddhist customs and alternative, more sustainable means of livelihood. Accordingly, the protection of traditional cultural resources, such as polyandry and Buddhist beliefs, could be an effective way to aid biodiversity and environmental conservation efforts in this key ecosystem.