Yongxiang Kang

Wild food plants and wild edible fungi in two valleys of the Qinling Mountains (Shaanxi, central China)

BackgroundThe aim of the study was to investigate knowledge and use of wild food plants in two mountain valleys separated by Mount Taibai – the highest peak of northern China and one of its biodiversity hotspots, each adjacent to species-rich temperate forest vegetation.MethodsSeventy two free lists were collected among the inhabitants of two mountain valleys (36 in each). All the studied households are within walking distance of primary forest vegetation, however the valleys differed in access to urban centers: Houzhenzi is very isolated, and the Dali valley has easier access to the cities of central Shaanxi.ResultsAltogether, 185 wild food plant species and 17 fungi folk taxa were mentioned. The mean number of freelisted wild foods was very high in Houzhenzi (mean 25) and slightly lower in Dali (mean 18). An average respondent listed many species of wild vegetables, a few wild fruits and very few fungi. Age and male gender had a positive but very low effect on the number of taxa listed.Twelve taxa of wild vegetables (Allium spp., Amaranthus spp., Caryopteris divaricata, Helwingia japonica, Matteucia struthiopteris, Pteridium aquilinum, Toona sinensis, Cardamine macrophylla, Celastrus orbiculatus, Chenopodium album, Pimpinella sp., Staphylea bumalda & S. holocarpa), two species of edible fruits (Akebia trifoliata, Schisandra sphenanthera) and none of the mushrooms were freelisted by at least half of the respondents in one or two of the valleys.ConclusionThe high number of wild vegetables listed is due to the high cultural position of this type of food in China compared to other parts of the world, as well as the high biodiversity of the village surroundings. A very high proportion of woodland species (42%, double the number of the ruderal species used) among the listed taxa is contrary to the general stereotype that wild vegetables in Asia are mainly ruderal species.The very low interest in wild mushroom collecting is noteworthy and is difficult to explain. It may arise from the easy access to the cultivated Auricularia and Lentinula mushrooms and very steep terrain, making foraging for fungi difficult.

Wild food plants used by the Tibetans of Gongba Valley (Zhouqu county, Gansu, China)

BackgroundThe ethnobotany of Tibetans is a seriously under-studied topic. The aim of the study was to investigate knowledge and use of wild food plants in a valley inhabited by Tibetans in the Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Region.MethodsThe field research was carried out in a wooded mountain valley in 9 neighbouring villages the Zhouqu (Brugchu) county, and comprised 17 interviews with single informants and 14 group interviews, involving 122 people altogether.ResultsWe recorded the use of 81 species of vascular plants from 41 families. Fruits formed the largest category, with 42 species, larger than the wild greens category, with 36 species. We also recorded the culinary use of 5 species of edible flowers, 7 species with underground edible organs and 5 taxa of fungi. On average, 16.2 edible taxa were listed per interview (median – 16). Green vegetables formed the largest category of wild foods (mean – 8.7 species, median – 9 species), but fruits were listed nearly as frequently (mean – 6.9, median – 6). Other categories were rarely mentioned: flowers (mean – 0.2, median – 0), underground edible parts (mean – 0.3, median – 0) and mushrooms (mean – 1.5, – median 1).Wild vegetables are usually boiled and/or fried and served as side-dishes (cai). They are often lacto-fermented. Wild fruits are mainly collected by children and eaten raw, they are not stored for further use. The most widely used wild vegetables are: Eleuterococcus spp., Pteridium aquilinum, Helwingia japonica, Aralia chinensis, Allium victorialis, Pteridium aquilinum, Ixeris chinensis, Thlaspi arvense and Chenopodium album. The culinary use of Caltha palustris as a green vegetable is very interesting. In its raw state, marsh marigold is a toxic plant, due to the presence of protoanemonin. In this area it is dried or lactofermented before use. The most commonly eaten fruits are: Pyrus xerophila, Prunus salicina, Berchemia sinica, Rubus spp. and Eleagnus umbellata.ConclusionsThe number of wild taxa eaten in the studied valley is relatively large compared to most studies from around the world. However, compared to the northern slope of the Qinling, in Shaanxi, the list is considerably shorter, in spite of the similar methodology applied and similar research effort involved.

Wild food plants and fungi used in the mycophilous Tibetan community of Zhagana (Tewo County, Gansu, China)

BackgroundThe aim of the study was to investigate knowledge and use of wild food plants and fungi in a highland valley in the Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Region on the north-eastern edges of the Tibetan Plateau.MethodsField research was carried out in four neighbouring villages in a mountain valley of the Diebu (Tewo) county, surrounded by spruce forests. The study consisted of 30 interviews with single informants, or group interviews (altogether 63 informants). Apart from collecting voucher specimens, we also identified fungi using DNA barcoding.ResultsWe recorded the use of 54 species of vascular plants. We also recorded the use of 22 mushroom taxa, which made up the largest category of wild foods. Fruits formed the largest category of food plants, with 21 species, larger than the wild greens category, which consisted of 20 species eaten after boiling or frying and 7 as raw snacks. We also recorded the alimentary use of 10 species of edible flowers and 3 species with underground edible organs. On average, 20.8 edible taxa were listed per interview (median – 21). The most listed category of wild foods was green vegetables (mean – 7.5 species, median – 8 species), but fruits and mushrooms were listed nearly as frequently (mean – 6.3, median – 6 and mean – 5.8, − median 6 respectively). Other category lists were very short, e.g., flowers (mean – 1.3, median – 1) and underground edible parts (mean – 0.7, median – 1).Wild vegetables are usually boiled and/or fried and served as side-dishes, or their green parts are eaten as snacks during mountain treks (e.g., peeled rhubarb shoots). Wild fruits are mainly collected by children and eaten raw, they are not stored for further use. The most widely used wild staple foods are Potetilla anserina roots, an important ceremonial food served on such occasions as New Year or at funerals. They are boiled and served with sugar and butter. The most important famine plants remembered by people are the aerial bulbils of Persicaria vivipara. Flowers are used as children’s snacks – their nectar is sucked.ConclusionsThe number of wild taxa eaten in the studied valley is similar to that of other Tibetan areas. The structure of wild food plant taxa is also very typical for Tibetan speaking areas (e.g., the use of rhubarb shoots, Potentilla anserina, Persicaria vivipara). The studied community show a high level of mycophilia.

Magnolia sprengeri Pamp.: Morphological variation and geographical distribution

Abstract The Magnolia meta-population described a hundred years ago from a very limited material as Magnolia sprengeri Pamp. has been mapped and investigated over its main area of distribution in Shaanxi and Hubei of central China. These deciduous, precocious, tall mountain trees are increasingly rare due to mans need for forestry resources and marginal agricultural land. The high degree of polymorphism is discussed in terms of phenotypic plasticity, evolutionary history of early angiosperms and the status as hexaploids in a hot-spot of cyclic climatic variations and a dramatic topography. The variation in vegetative and reproductive characters is found to be much wider than previously recognised, regionally and locally. Some published species and varieties are shown to belong naturally within a variable M. sprengeri. Magnolia multiflora M.C. Wang et C.L. Min, Magnolia wufengensis L.Y. Ma et L.R. Wang and M. wufengensis var. multitepala L.Y. Ma et L.R. Wang are reduced to synonyms of M. sprengeri Pamp. M. sprengeri var. elongata (Rehder et Wilson) Johnstone is replaced with M. sprengeri var. sprengeri, while M. sprengeri var. diva (Stapf ex Dandy) Stapf is re-established for the pink (red) flowering form.

Genetic diversity of endangered Polyporus umbellatus from China assessed using a sequence-related amplified polymorphism technique

Polyporus umbellatus (Pers.) Fries is an endangered medicinal fungus in China with in vivo anticancer activity, but its genetic information is lacking. Eight natural P. umbellatus strains collected from 7 provinces in China were subjected to sequence-related amplified polymorphism markers to estimate the level and pattern of genetic diversity. Forty-nine primer combinations generated 1219 highly reproducible and discernible loci, among which 1023 were polymorphic. The percentage of polymorphism varied from 35.71 to 96.30 with an average of 83.92. Genetic identity among all strains ranged from 0.15 to 0.78 with an average of 0.46. The unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean dendrogram clustered 8 strains into 3 clusters, and the clustering pattern showed 3 groups. Principal coordinate analysis further indicated that the genetic diversity of P. umbellatus strains was unevenly distributed and instead displayed a clustered distribution pattern. A relatively high level of genetic diversity was maintained in 8 natural P. umbellatus strains, but its abundance might be subjected to environmental heterogeneity, and the population structure of co-evolved Armillaria species may be selected by nature under the specific microenvironment.

Chemical constituents of the leaves from Xanthoceras sorbifolia

Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge (Sapindaceae) is a shrub which is widely distributed in the northwestern and northeastern regions of China and has been used as a folk medicine for various diseases, including rheumatism and enuresis in children. It has been shown that an extract from the husk of X. sorbifolia has cytotoxicity toward various human cancer cell lines [1]. Within our screening program for secondary metabolites from Chinese medicinal plants, 5 kg dried leaf powder of Xanthoceras sorbifolia Bunge collected in the Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi Province, China, on August 1, 2009, was extracted exhaustively with 95% ethanol at room temperature. The ethanol extract was evaporated in vacuum at 60 C to give a residue. The residue was suspended in water and successively treated with petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol. The n-butanol extract (61 g) was subjected to silica gel column chromatography eluting successively with chloroform– methanol gradient (1:0, 20:1, 10:1, 5:1, 2:1, 1:1, 0:1) to yield seven fractions (A–G). Fraction C was separated by column chromatography on silica gel with a gradient of methanol in chloroform to give five subfractions (C1–C5). Fraction C2 was separated by silica gel column chromatography eluting with chloroform–methanol (10:1) to give pure compound 1 (125 mg) and compound 2 (292 mg). Fraction D was repeatedly subjected to silica gel column chromatography with chloroform– methanol (5:1) to give crude compound 3 and then Sephadex LH-20 with ethyl acetate–methanol (1:1) to yield pure compound 3 (167 mg). The ethyl acetate extract (23 g) was subjected to silica gel column chromatography eluting successively with ethyl acetate–methanol (1:0, 50:1, 20:1, 10:1, 5:1, 2:1, 1:1, 0:1) to yield eight fractions (I–VIII). Fraction II was separated by column chromatography on silica gel with a gradient of ethyl acetate in petroleum ether to give four subfractions (II1–II4). Fraction II1 was separated by silica gel column chromatography eluting with ethyl acetate–methanol (15:1) to give pure compound 4 (95 mg) and compound 5 (78 mg). The structures of these compounds were elucidated by a combination of 1H, and 13C NMR spectral analysis and from their physicochemical properties, and were identified as myricetrin (1) [2], quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (2) [3], rutin (3) [4], 7-hydroxycoumarin (4) [5], and fraxetol (5) [6] by comparison of their UV, IR, and NMR spectral data with the reported data in the literature. Compounds 3, 4, and 5 were isolated from the leaves of X. sorbifolia for the first time. Myricetrin (1), mp 182–184 C. 1H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6, , ppm, J/Hz): 6.20 (1H, d, J = 2, H-6), 6.37 (1H, d, J = 2, H-8), 6.89 (2H, s, H-2 and H-6 ), 5.48 (1H, d, J = 7.7, H-1 ), 12.7 (1H, s, 5-OH), 10.9 (1H, s, 7-OH), 9.27 (1H, s, 4 -OH), 0.84 (3H, d, J = 6, 6 -CH3). Quercetin-3-O-rhamnoside (2), mp 185–187 C. Rutin (3), mp 188–190 C. 13C NMR (100 MHz, DMSO-d6, , ppm): 157.0 (C-2), 133.8 (C-3), 177.8 (C-4), 161.7 (C-5), 99.2 (C-6), 164.6 (C-7), 94.0 (C-8), 156.9 (C-9), 104.4 (C-10), 122.0 (C-1 ), 115.7 (C-2 ), 145.2 (C-3 ), 148.9 (C-4 ), 116.7 (C-5 ), 121.6 (C-6 ), 101.7 (C-1 ), 74.5 (C-2 ), 76.9 (C-3 ), 71.0 (C-4 ), 76.4 (C-5 ), 67.4 (C-6 ), 101.2 (C-1 ), 70.8 (C-2 ), 70.5 (C-3 ), 72.3 (C-4 ), 68.7 (C-5 ), 18.2 (C-6 ).

Plants as highly diverse sources of construction wood, handicrafts and fibre in the Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi, China): the importance of minor forest products

BackgroundChinese rural communities living among species-rich forests have little documentation on species used to make handicrafts and construction materials originating from the surrounding vegetation. Our research aimed at recording minor wood uses in the Heihe valley in the Qinling mountains.MethodsWe carried out 37 semi-structured interviews in seven villages.ResultsWe documented the use of 84 species of plants. All local large canopy trees are used for some purpose. Smaller trees and shrubs which are particularly hard are selectively cut. The bark of a few species was used to make shoes, hats, steamers and ropes, but this tradition is nearly gone. A few species, mainly bamboo, are used for basket making, and year-old willow branches are used for brushing off the chaff during wheat winnowing.ConclusionsThe traditional use of wood materials documented suggests that some rare and endangered tree species may have been selectively cut due to their valuable wood, e.g. Fraxinus mandshurica and Taxus wallichiana var. chinensis. Some other rare species, e.g. Dipteronia sinensis, are little used and little valued.

Chemical constituents of the leaves of Menispermum dauricum

Menispermum dauricum is widely distributed in the Peoples Republic of China. The rhizomes of the plant, known in traditional Chinese medicine as Bei-Dou-Gen, are officially listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia and used for treating sore throat, colitis, dysentery, and rheumatic arthralgia [1]. As part of our ongoing studies on the chemistry of Chinese traditional medicines, we investigated the chemical constituents of the leaves of M. dauricum collected from the Qinling Mountains, Shaanxi Province, China, on August 19, 2010. This paper describes the isolation and structure elucidation of two alkaloids and three flavone glycosides from the ethanolic extract of the plant.