Yoonsuk Huh

A prototype MR insertable brain PET using tileable GAPD arrays

The aim of this study is to develop a MR compatible PET that is insertable to MRI and allows simultaneous PET and MR imaging of human brain. The brain PET having 72 detector modules arranged in a ring of 330 mm diameter was constructed and mounted in a 3-T MRI. Each PET module composed of 4 × 4 matrix of 3 mm × 3 mm × 20 mm LYSO crystals coupled to a tileable 4 × 4 array Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GAPD) and designed to locate between RF and gradient coils. GAPD output charge signals were transferred to preamplifiers using flat cable of 3 m long, and then sent to position decoder circuit (PDC) identifying digital address and generating an analog pulse of the one interacted channel from preamplifier signals. The PDC outputs were fed into FPGA-embedded DAQ boards. The analog signal was digitized, and arrival time and energy of the signal were calculated and stored. LYSO and GAPD were located inside MR bore and all electronics including preamplifiers were positioned outside MR bore to minimize signal interference between PET and MR. Simultaneous PET/MR images of a hot-rod and Hoffman brain phantom were acquired in a 3-T MRI using the MR compatible PET system. The rods down to a diameter of 3.5 mm were resolved in the hot-rod PET image. Activity distribution patterns between white and gray matter in Hoffman brain phantom were well imaged. No degradation of image quality of the hot-rod and Hoffman brain phantoms on the simultaneously acquired MR images obtained with standard sequences was observed. These results demonstrate that simultaneous acquisition of PET and MR images is feasible using the MR insertable PET developed in this study.

A small animal PET based on GAPDs and charge signal transmission approach for hybrid PET-MR imaging

Positron emission tomography (PET) employing Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GAPDs) and charge signal transmission approach was developed for small animal imaging. Animal PET contained 16 LYSO and GAPD detector modules that were arranged in a 70 mm diameter ring with an axial field of view of 13 mm. The GAPDs charge output signals were transmitted to a preamplifier located remotely using 300 cm flexible flat cables. The position decoder circuits (PDCs) were used to multiplex the PET signals from 256 to 4 channels. The outputs of the PDCs were digitized and further-processed in the data acquisition unit. The cross-compatibilities of the PET detectors and MRI were assessed outside and inside the MRI. Experimental studies of the developed full ring PET were performed to examine the spatial resolution and sensitivity. Phantom and mouse images were acquired to examine the imaging performance. The mean energy and time resolution of the PET detector were 17.6% and 1.5 ns, respectively. No obvious degradation on PET and MRI was observed during simultaneous PET-MRI data acquisition. The measured spatial resolution and sensitivity at the CFOV were 2.8 mm and 0.7%, respectively. In addition, a 3 mm diameter line source was clearly resolved in the hot-sphere phantom images. The reconstructed transaxial PET images of the mouse brain and tumor displaying the glucose metabolism patterns were imaged well. These results demonstrate GAPD and the charge signal transmission approach can allow the development of high performance small animal PET with improved MR compatibility.

Development of brain PET using GAPD arrays.

PURPOSE In recent times, there has been great interest in the use of Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GAPDs) as scintillator readout in positron emission tomography (PET) detectors because of their advantages, such as high gain, compact size, low power consumption, and magnetic field insensitivity. The purpose of this study was to develop a novel PET system based on GAPD arrays for brain imaging. METHODS The PET consisted of 72 detector modules arranged in a ring of 330 mm diameter. Each PET module was composed of a 4 × 4 matrix of 3 × 3 × 20 mm(3) cerium-doped lutetium yttrium orthosilicate (LYSO) crystals coupled with a 4 × 4 array three-side tileable GAPD. The signals from each PET module were fed into preamplifiers using a 3 m long flat cable and then sent to a position decoder circuit (PDC), which output a digital address and an analog pulse of the interacted channel among 64 preamplifier signals transmitted from four PET detector modules. The PDC outputs were fed into field programmable gate array (FPGA)-embedded data acquisition (DAQ) boards. The analog signal was then digitized, and arrival time and energy of the signal were calculated and stored. RESULTS The energy and coincidence timing resolutions measured for 511 keV gamma rays were 18.4 ± 3.1% and 2.6 ns, respectively. The transaxial spatial resolution and sensitivity in the center of field of view (FOV) were 3.1 mm and 0.32% cps/Bq, respectively. The rods down to a diameter of 2.5 mm were resolved in a hot-rod phantom image, and activity distribution patterns between the white and gray matters in the Hoffman brain phantom were well imaged. CONCLUSIONS Experimental results indicate that a PET system can be developed using GAPD arrays and the GAPD-based PET system can provide high-quality PET imaging.

A dual-ended readout PET detector module based on GAPDs with large-area microcells

The use of a dual-ended readout PET detector module based on Geiger-mode avalanche photodiodes (GAPDs) with large-area microcells was proposed to obtain high photon detection efficiency (PDE) and overcome energy non-linearity problems. A simulation study was performed and experimental measurement were taken for the single- and dual-ended PET detector modules consisting of the two types of GAPDs with 50 × 50 μm2 and 100 × 100 μm2 microcells. A Monte Carlo simulation was conducted to predict the number of incident photons impinging on the GAPD entrance surface to estimate the light collection efficiency (LCE) and energy linearity performance. A depth of interaction (DOI) ratio histogram was also obtained. An experimental study was performed to acquire the spectra of different energy γ-rays, and the energy linearity was evaluated by analyzing the photo-peak channels. The simulation results showed that the LCE and energy linearity of the dual-ended PET detector modules were considerably improved compared to the single-ended one, with 100 × 100 μm2 microcell GAPDs. We also estimated that the proposed method can provide accurate (3–4 mm) and uniform DOI resolution. In the experimental measurement, the 511 keV photo-peak channels of the dual-ended PET detector modules were increased 26% and 71% compared to the single-ended one, with 50 × 50 μm2 and 100 × 100 μm2 microcell GAPDs, respectively. The coefficients of determination (R2) were increased from 0.97 to 0.99 and from 0.86 to 0.93 with 50 × 50 μm2 and 100 × 100 μm2 microcell GAPDs, respectively. The results of this study demonstrate that the dual-ended readout scheme using GAPDs with large-area microcells provides high LCE and DOI information with minimized energy non-linearity. This will enable investigators to configure PET detector modules with high sensitivity and resolution.

MR insertable brain PET using tileable GAPD arrays

The aim of this study is to develop a MR compatible PET that is insertable to MRI and allows simultaneous PET and MR imaging of human brain. The brain PET having 72 detector modules arranged in a ring of 330 mm diameter was constructed and mounted in a 3-T MRI. Each PET module composed of 4 × 4 matrix of 3 mm × 3 mm × 20 mm LYSO crystals coupled to a tileable 4 × 4 array Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GAPD) and designed to locate between RF and gradient coils. GAPD output charge signals were transferred to preamplifiers using flat cable of 3 m long, and then sent to position decoder circuit (PDC) identifying digital address and generating an analog pulse of the one interacted channel from preamplifier signals. The PDC outputs were fed into FPGA-embedded DAQ boards. The analog signal was digitized, and arrival time and energy of the signal were calculated and stored. LYSO and GAPD were located inside MR bore and all electronics including preamplifiers were positioned outside MR bore to minimize signal interference between PET and MR. Simultaneous PET/MR images of a hot-rod and Hoffman brain phantom were acquired in a 3-T MRI using the MR compatible PET system. The rods down to a diameter of 3.5 mm were resolved in the hot-rod PET image. Activity distribution patterns between white and gray matter in Hoffman brain phantom were well imaged. No degradation of image quality of the hot-rod and Hoffman brain phantoms on the simultaneously acquired MR images obtained with standard sequences was observed. These results demonstrate that simultaneous acquisition of PET and MR images is feasible using the MR insertable PET developed in this study.

Development of Filtering Methods for PET Signals Contaminated by RF Pulses for Combined PET-MRI

This paper presents the development of filtering methods for positron emission tomography (PET) signals contaminated by radio frequency (RF) pulses for combined PET and clinical 3-T magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The filtering methods include software, hardware, and hybrid correction methods. In the software correction method, PET signals are assessed, and valid signals are identified based on the characteristics of a typical PET signal using Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA)-based programming. The hardware correction method makes use of differential-to-single-ended and low-pass filter circuits for PET analog signals. The hybrid correction method involves the sequential application of both the hardware and software methods. Both valid and contaminated PET signals are measured with an oscilloscope. An evaluation is then made of the performance (energy resolution, photopeak channel, total counts, and coincidence timing resolution) of the PET detector modules with and without various MR sequences (gradient echo, spin echo T1 sequence). For all correction methods, the energy resolution, photopeak position, and coincidence timing resolution with MR sequences are similar (<; 3%) to those without MR sequences. However, the total count of each module depends greatly on the method applied. The hybrid correction method displays an ability to preserve (<; 1%) the total counts of the modules during various MR sequences. The results show that this filtering method, which can reject noise signals and reduce count loss while preserving the valid analog signals of MR sequences, is reliable and useful for the development of simultaneous PET-MRI.

A new design of neuro-PET improving sensitivity

The improvement of sensitivity in neuro-PET is crucial because it can reduce the scan time and/or the radiation dose. In this study, we proposed a novel PET detector design that combined conical shape detector with cylindrical one (conical PET) to obtain high sensitivity. The sensitivity as a function of the oblique angle and the ratio of the conical to cylindrical portion was estimated to optimize the design of conical PET using Monte Carlo simulation tool, GATE v6.2. An axial sensitivity and misplacement rate by penetration of γ rays were also estimated to evaluate the performance of the conical PET. The sensitivity was improved by 36% at the center of axial FOV. This value was similar to the analytically calculated value. The misplacement rate of conical PET was about 5% higher than the conventional PET. The results of this study demonstrated the conical detector proposed in this study could provide subsequent improvement in sensitivity which could allow to design high sensitivity PET for brain imaging.

Development of a MR compatible brain PET II using 4-side tileable GAPD arrays

There has been great interest in the development of combined PET/MR, a useful tool for both functional and anatomic imaging. We have developed a proof-of-principle MR compatible PET, employing a design concept that uses GAPD arrays as a PET photo-sensor and charge signal transmission method for human brain imaging. The purpose of this study was to design the 2nd version of brain PET with an extended axial field-of-view (FOV) and to evaluate its initial performance. The PET consisted of 18 detector blocks arranged in a ring of 390 mm diameter with 60 mm axial FOV. Each detector block was composed of a 4 × 4 matrix of detector module, each of which consisted of a 4 × 4 array L YSO coupled to a 4-side tileable 4 × 4 GAPD array. The PET gantry was shielded with gold-plated conductive fabric tapes with a thickness of 0.1 mm. PET signals were fed into the position decoder circuit (PDC) generating the digital address and analog pulse of the one interacted channel among the 256 output channels of the detector block, using a 4 m long flat cable. Commercial DAQ modules were used to digitize analog output signals of the PDCs and to store the data in list mode format. The flat cable was shielded with a mesh-type aluminum sheet, which had a thickness of 0.24 mm. All electronics were enclosed in an aluminum box, which had a thickness of 10 mm, located outside the MR bore. Average energy and timing resolutions of the developed PET measured outside the MR room were 18.1±3.2% (n=4,608) and 3.6 ns, respectively. The sensitivity and spatial resolution were 1.2% and 3.1 mm at the center of the field of view, respectively. No significant degradations of PET performance and the uniformity of MR image were observed. Simultaneous PET and MR images of hot-rod phantom and cat brain were successfully acquired. Experimental results indicate that the high performance compact and lightweight PET insert for hybrid PET-MRI can be developed using GAPD arrays and charge signal transmission method.

PET detector configuration with thick light guide and GAPD array having large-area microcells

Light sharing PET detector configuration coupled with thick light guide and Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GAPD) with large-area microcells was proposed to overcome the energy non-linearity problem and to obtain high light collection efficiency (LCE). Theoretical evaluations were performed for 90 types of PET detector modules. A Monte Carlo simulation was conducted for the three types of LSO block, 4×4 array of 3×3×20 mm3, 6×6 array of 2×2×20 mm3, and 12×12 array of 1×1×20 mm3 discrete crystals, to investigate the scintillation light distribution after conversion of the γ-rays in LSO. The incident photons were read out by three types of 4×4 array photo-sensors, which were PSPMT of 25% quantum efficiency (QE), GAPD1 with 50×50 μm2 microcells of 30% photon detection efficiency (PDE) and GAPD2 with 100×100 μm2 of 45% PDE. The number of counted photons in each photo-sensor was analytically calculated. The LCE, linearity and flood histogram were examined for each PET detector module as a function of light guide thickness ranging from 1 to 10 mm. The performance of PET detector modules based on GAPDs was significantly improved by using the thick light guide. The LCE was increased from 24 to 30% and from 14 to 41%, and the linearity was also improved from 0.96 to 0.99, from 0.78 to 0.99, for GAPD1 and GAPD2, respectively. In the contrary, the performance was not changed for PSPMT based detector. The flood histogram of 12×12 array PET detector modules using 3 mm light guide coupled with GAPDs was obtained by simulation, and all crystals of 1×1×20 mm3 size was clearly identified. PET detector module coupled with thick light guide and GAPD array with large-area microcells was proposed to obtain high QE and high spatial resolution, and its feasibility was verified. It demonstrates GAPDs could be a competitive and cost-effective photo-sensor respect to the high QE (∼40%) PMT.

Dual-ended readout PET detector module based on GAPD having large-area microcells

A dual-ended readout PET detector module based on Geiger-mode avalanche photodiode (GAPD) with large-area microcells was proposed to obtain high photon detection efficiency (PDE) and to overcome the energy non-linearity problem. Theoretical analysis and experimental measurement were performed for the single- and dual-ended PET detector modules which were consisted of the two types of GAPDs with 50×50 μm2 and 100×100 μm2 microcell sizes. A Monte Carlo simulation was conducted to predict the number of incident photons impinging on the GAPD entrance surface to estimate the light collection efficiency (LCE) and linearity performance. Also, the depth of interaction (DOI) ratio histogram was obtained. Experimental study was performed to acquire the energy spectra of different γ-rays, and the linearity was evaluated by analyzing the photo-peak channels. The simulation results showed the LCE of dual-ended PET detector modules were improved 9% and 55% comparing to the single-ended one, with 50×50 μm2 and 100×100 μm2 microcells GAPDs, respectively. Also, it was estimated that the proposed method can provide excellent (3–4 mm) and uniform DOI resolution. In the experimental measurement, the 511 keV photo-peak channels of dual-ended PET detector modules was increased 26% and 71% comparing to the single-ended one, with 50×50 μm2 and 100×100 μm2 microcells GAPDs, respectively. The coefficient of determination (R2) was improved from 0.86 to 0.93 with 100×100 μm2 microcells GAPD. The similar improvement in photo-peak channel and linearity was observed in the simulation results. It demonstrated that the dual-ended PET detector configuration could considerably improve the non-linearity properties of GAPD without modification of microcell size and, hence, such configuration could provide high LCE, as well as DOI capabilities, for high PET detector performance.