Yuet W. Cheung

Ethnicity and Alcohol/Drug Use Revisited: A Framework for Future Research

Despite the large pool of research findings pertaining to ethnic and racial variations in the use of drugs (including alcohol), the relationship between ethnicity and drug use has not been thoroughly examined. This paper describes some of the major findings regarding ethnic and racial variations in drug use, and examines the methodological limitations of such studies. Moreover, this paper addresses the problem of shortage of theoretical explanations for ethnic variations in drug use. It is argued that the variable of ethnicity has not been properly conceptualized and measured in most studies. Cultural and structural aspects of ethnicity at both the individual and collective levels are examined, and their possible contributions to more rigorous research on the relationship between ethnicity and drug use are discussed.

Is Hong Kong Experiencing Normalization of Adolescent Drug Use? Some Reflections on the Normalization Thesis

The upsurge of consumption of party drugs among adolescents in recent years in Hong Kong has been part of the global trend of adolescent recreational use of drugs at rave parties, discos and similar party settings. Scholars in Western societies have recently proposed the thesis of “normalization of adolescent drug use” to describe such a trend. The normalization thesis points at three major aspects of the normalization phenomenon, namely, a rapid increase of the prevalence of drug use in young people, the widespread popularity of recreational drug use that is closely linked with the recent arrival of dance club culture, and a receptive attitude towards drug use as a normal part of leisure. This article aims to examine whether the normalization thesis can be applied to analyze the situation of adolescent drug use in Hong Kong. Data are drawn from official statistics and a recent survey conducted in 2002–2004 of drug use of Hong Kong marginal youths (N = 504). The case of Hong Kong only partially supports the thesis. Our findings show that the normalization of drug use among young people has occurred in Hong Kong, but the extent of normalization is smaller than those in Western societies like the United Kingdom. They also suggest that a recognition of possible cultural differences may be complementary to the normalization thesis. Limitations of the study are also noted.

Strain, Self-Control, and Gender Differences in Delinquency among Chinese Adolescents: Extending General Strain Theory

Agnews general strain theory (GST) and Gottfredson and Hirschis self-control theory represent significant theoretical developments in sociology of deviance over the last two decades. Both theories offer unique insights into the well-known controversy of gender disparity in crime and delinquency. Incorporating their ideas and testing them in a Chinese context, this study investigates the role of self-control, which has been seldom included in GST assessments, in moderating the strain-delinquency relationship and analyzes whether this conditioning effect varies by gender. Using data from 1,015 Chinese students in Hong Kong, negative binominal regression models found that self-control is a gender-specific conditioning factor of strain. Self-control mitigates the effects of certain strains on delinquency for females only. Yet, unexpectedly, coercive parenting decreases male delinquency and moderates the impact of low self-control in males. The implications of Chinese cultural forces for the perception of strain and the conditioning influence of self-control merit closer attention.

Social Capital and Risk Level of Posttreatment Drug Use: Implications for Harm Reduction among Male Treated Addicts in Hong Kong

Since relapse is common among treated addicts, harm reduction efforts should be made to minimize their levels of risk in their reuse of drugs. This paper applies the social capital framework to analyze how a treated addicts social network affects the risk level of posttreatment drug use. Embeddedness in a pro-social network reestablished by a treated addict can facilitate positive social capital in the forms of tutelage of a normal life, informal social control from nondrug-using people, and lessening of perceived public discrimination. On the contrary, reentering a network of active addicts can produce negative social capital in the forms of tutelage of the addict lifestyle, lack of informal social control from nondrug-using people, and reinforcement of perceived public discrimination. The possession of positive social capital greatly enhances the treated addicts likelihood to reduce the risk level of posttreatment drug use, whereas the possession of negative social capital reduces such likelihood. Data used in this paper were extracted from a study of 200 male former clients of a voluntary residential treatment agency in Hong Kong. Implications of the findings for helping male treated addicts to generate positive social capital as a posttreatment harm reduction measure are discussed.

Approaches to Ethnicity: Clearing Roadblocks in the Study of Ethnicity and Substance Use

This paper reviews a number of indicators of ethnicity commonly used in alcohol/drug use studies. These include the racial, natal, symbolic and cultural approaches to ethnicity. The utility and limitations of each of these approaches is scrutinized. Because ethnicity is a multidimensional concept, using only one dimension, as is the case in many alcohol/drug use studies, is inadequate. One of the major weaknesses of studies of ethnicity and substance use is the failure to recognize the presence of subcultural differences within an ethnic group. Implications of the present review for future research in ethnicity and substance use/misuse and for future development of culturally sensitive programs and services are discussed.

Experience of Crack Use: Findings from a Community Based Sample in Toronto

This paper presents Canadian data on crack use collected from a community-based study of seventy-nine crack users in Toronto, and compares these findings with popular images of crack and its users. Crack was portrayed in the media and police reports as extremely dangerous because of the quick and intense high from smoking it and its powerful addictive property. Data from the study show that, while the quick and intense high was what crack users liked most, adverse physical, psychological and financial consequences of crack addiction have also cautioned users. The overall frequencies of use in the past month, past year, and lifetime were quite low, suggesting that crack use is not necessarily compulsive. The major factor affecting level of use was perceived risk of harm. Crack users were likely to be powder cocaine users as well, and they did not differ significantly from powder users with respect to sociodemographic characteristics. Treatment and prevention implications of the findings are discussed.

Personal empowerment and life satisfaction among self-help group members in Hong Kong

This study examines the relationship between personal empowerment and life satisfaction among self-help group members in Hong Kong. Personal empowerment is viewed as a form of social capital derived from engagement in the social relations within the self-help group that allows members to obtain benefits such as increasing their life satisfaction. Sense of mastery and self-esteem are introduced as intervening variables between personal empowerment and life satisfaction. A path model is constructed to compare the direct effects and indirect effects of personal empowerment, sense of mastery, and self-esteem on life satisfaction. The same model is also tested across various sociodemographic subgroups. Findings support a significant and positive relationship between personal empowerment and life satisfaction and show that there are sociodemographic differences in the effect of the former on the latter. Implications of the findings for future research and services pertaining to personal empowerment and its outcomes in Hong Kong are discussed.

Beyond Liver and Culture: A Review of Theories and Research in Drinking among Chinese in North America

Low levels of alcohol consumption and drinking problems have been consistently found among the Chinese in North America and in other Chinese societies. Two theories of Chinese drinking have been popular in the literature. First, the physiological explanation attributes the light alcohol use among the Chinese to their high propensity to flush, which protects them from heavy drinking. Second, the cultural explanation suggests that Chinese cultural values emphasizing moderation and self-restraint discourage drinking to the point of drunkenness. A review of existing research shows that both explanations are not supported by adequate empirical research findings and are plagued with conceptual and methodological shortcomings. It is also noted that both theories cannot explain why some Chinese do become heavy or problem drinkers. It is suggested that we should look beyond physiological and cultural factors for a better understanding of contemporary Chinese drinking patterns.

Ethnic identification and alcohol use among Canadian-born and foreign-born high school students in Toronto.

Unlike other demographic and sociopsychological correlates of student alcohol and other drug use, the variable of ethnic identification and its possible effects on student substance use have not received adequate attention from researchers. This paper seeks to examine the relationship between ethnic identification and alcohol use on the basis of data collected from a survey of 667 high school students in Toronto. Results show that when other variables (sociodemographic, school, family, availability, and informal social control) are controlled for, the relationship between ethnic identification and alcohol use remains significant in Canadian-born students but not in foreign-born students. Also, foreign-born students are found to exhibit lower levels of alcohol use than their Canadian-born counterparts, regardless of cultural origin. Implications of the findings for future studies of ethnicity and alcohol/drug use and for prevention efforts are discussed.

Empowerment Effect of Self-Help Group Participation in a Chinese Context

Abstract Although self-help group participation and its empowerment effect have been widely discussed, very few studies have been conducted in a Chinese context. This paper addresses this important issue in Hong Kong. Delineated into intrapersonal empowerment, interpersonal empowerment and extra-personal empowerment, personal empowerment is viewed as a form of social capital that can be derived from participation in the social relations within the group, and one that can facilitate the obtaining of maximum benefits from the group for the goal of effectively coping with the problems concerned. A path model is constructed to compare the direct effects and indirect effects of participation on personal empowerment, and of participation and personal empowerment on reported extent of benefits obtained. Findings support a somewhat weak relationship between participation and personal empowerment, but a strong relationship between personal empowerment and reported extent of benefits obtained. The implications of the findings for future research on self-group empowerment in Hong Kong and overseas are discussed.