Yuko Yamaguchi-Iwai

Homologous recombination and non‐homologous end‐joining pathways of DNA double‐strand break repair have overlapping roles in the maintenance of chromosomal integrity in vertebrate cells

Eukaryotic cells repair DNA double‐strand breaks (DSBs) by at least two pathways, homologous recombination (HR) and non‐homologous end‐joining (NHEJ). Rad54 participates in the first recombinational repair pathway while Ku proteins are involved in NHEJ. To investigate the distinctive as well as redundant roles of these two repair pathways, we analyzed the mutants RAD54−/−, KU70−/− and RAD54−/−/KU70−/−, generated from the chicken B‐cell line DT40. We found that the NHEJ pathway plays a dominant role in repairing γ‐radiation‐induced DSBs during G1–early S phase while recombinational repair is preferentially used in late S–G2 phase. RAD54−/−/KU70−/− cells were profoundly more sensitive to γ‐rays than either single mutant, indicating that the two repair pathways are complementary. Spontaneous chromosomal aberrations and cell death were observed in both RAD54−/− and RAD54−/−/KU70−/− cells, with RAD54−/−/KU70−/− cells exhibiting significantly higher levels of chromosomal aberrations than RAD54−/− cells. These observations provide the first genetic evidence that both repair pathways play a role in maintaining chromosomal DNA during the cell cycle.

Rad51-deficient vertebrate cells accumulate chromosomal breaks prior to cell death.

Yeast rad51 mutants are viable, but extremely sensitive to γ‐rays due to defective repair of double‐strand breaks. In contrast, disruption of the murine RAD51 homologue is lethal, indicating an essential role of Rad51 in vertebrate cells. We generated clones of the chicken B lymphocyte line DT40 carrying a human RAD51 transgene under the control of a repressible promoter and subsequently disrupted the endogenous RAD51 loci. Upon inhibition of the RAD51 transgene, Rad51− cells accumulated in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle before dying. Chromosome analysis revealed that most metaphase‐arrested Rad51− cells carried isochromatid‐type breaks. In conclusion, Rad51 fulfils an essential role in the repair of spontaneously occurring chromosome breaks in proliferating cells of higher eukaryotes.

Sister Chromatid Exchanges Are Mediated by Homologous Recombination in Vertebrate Cells

ABSTRACT Sister chromatid exchange (SCE) frequency is a commonly used index of chromosomal stability in response to environmental or genetic mutagens. However, the mechanism generating cytologically detectable SCEs and, therefore, their prognostic value for chromosomal stability in mitotic cells remain unclear. We examined the role of the highly conserved homologous recombination (HR) pathway in SCE by measuring SCE levels in HR-defective vertebrate cells. Spontaneous and mitomycin C-induced SCE levels were significantly reduced for chicken DT40 B cells lacking the key HR genes RAD51 and RAD54but not for nonhomologous DNA end-joining (NHEJ)-defectiveKU70−/− cells. As measured by targeted integration efficiency, reconstitution of HR activity by expression of a human RAD51 transgene restored SCE levels to normal, confirming that HR is the mechanism responsible for SCE. Our findings show that HR uses the nascent sister chromatid to repair potentially lethal DNA lesions accompanying replication, which might explain the lethality or tumorigenic potential associated with defects in HR or HR-associated proteins.

Overview of mammalian zinc transporters.

In recent years, a number of mammalian zinc transporters have been identified, and candidate genes are rapidly growing. These transporters are classified into two families: ZIP (ZRT, IRT-like protein) and CDF (cation diffusion facilitator). ZIP members facilitate zinc influx into the cytosol, while CDF members facilitate its efflux from the cytosol. Molecular characterization of the transporters has brought about major advances in our understanding of their physiological functions. Zinc metabolism is regulated primarily through zinc-dependent control of transcription, translation, and intracellular trafficking of transporters. Analyses of mice whose zinc transporter genes have been genetically disrupted and of the naturally occurring mutant mice with symptoms related to abnormal zinc metabolism have provided compelling evidence that some zinc transporters play critical roles in zinc homeostasis. In this review, we review the literature of mammalian zinc transporters with emphasis on very recent findings and elicit integrative knowledge of zinc homeostasis.

Thioredoxin-2 (TRX-2) is an essential gene regulating mitochondria-dependent apoptosis

Thioredoxin‐2 (Trx‐2) is a mitochondria‐specific member of the thioredoxin superfamily. Mitochondria have a crucial role in the signal transduction for apoptosis. To investigate the biological significance of Trx‐2, we cloned chicken TRX‐2 cDNA and generated clones of the conditional Trx‐2‐deficient cells using chicken B‐cell line, DT40. Here we show that TRX‐2 is an essential gene and that Trx‐2‐deficient cells undergo apoptosis upon repression of the TRX‐2 transgene, showing an accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). Cytochrome c is released from mitochondria, while caspase‐9 and caspase‐3, but not caspase‐8, are activated upon inhibition of the TRX‐2 transgene. In addition, Trx‐2 and cytochrome c are co‐immunoprecipitated in an in vitro assay. These results suggest that mitochondrial Trx‐2 is essential for cell viability, playing a crucial role in the scavenging ROS in mitochondria and regulating the mitochondrial apoptosis signaling pathway.

Mre11 is essential for the maintenance of chromosomal DNA in vertebrate cells

Yeast Mre11 functions with Rad50 and Xrs2 in a complex that has pivotal roles in homologous recombination (HR) and non‐homologous end‐joining (NHEJ) DNA double‐strand break (DSB) repair pathways. Vertebrate Mre11 is essential. Conditionally, MRE11 null chicken DT40 cells accumulate chromosome breaks and die upon Mre11 repression, showing frequent centrosome amplification. Mre11 deficiency also causes increased radiosensitivity and strongly reduced targeted integration frequencies. Mre11 is, therefore, crucial for HR and essential in mitosis through its role in chromosome maintenance by recombinational repair. Surprisingly perhaps, given the role of Mre11 in yeast NHEJ, disruption of NHEJ by deletion of KU70 greatly exacerbates the effects of MRE11 deficiency, revealing a significant Mre11‐independent component of metazoan NHEJ.

Reduced X-Ray Resistance and Homologous Recombination Frequencies in a RAD54−/− Mutant of the Chicken DT40 Cell Line

rad54 mutants of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae are extremely X-ray sensitive and have decreased mitotic recombination frequencies because of a defect in double-strand break repair. A RAD54 homolog was disrupted in the chicken B cell line DT40, which undergoes immunoglobulin gene conversion and exhibits unusually high ratios of targeted to random integration after DNA transfection. Homozygous RAD54-/- mutant clones were highly X-ray sensitive compared to wildtype cells. The rate of immunoglobulin gene conversion was 6- to 8-fold reduced, and the frequency of targeted integration was at least two orders of magnitude decreased in the mutant clones. Reexpression of the RAD54 cDNA restored radiation resistance and targeted integration activity. The reported phenotype provides the first genetic evidence of a link between double-strand break repair and homologous recombination in vertebrate cells.

Homologous recombination, but not DNA repair, is reduced in vertebrate cells deficient in RAD52

ABSTRACT Rad52 plays a pivotal role in double-strand break (DSB) repair and genetic recombination in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, where mutation of this gene leads to extreme X-ray sensitivity and defective recombination. Yeast Rad51 and Rad52 interact, as do their human homologues, which stimulates Rad51-mediated DNA strand exchange in vitro, suggesting that Rad51 and Rad52 act cooperatively. To define the role of Rad52 in vertebrates, we generatedRAD52−/− mutants of the chicken B-cell line DT40. Surprisingly, RAD52 −/− cells were not hypersensitive to DNA damages induced by γ-irradiation, methyl methanesulfonate, or cis-platinum(II)diammine dichloride (cisplatin). Intrachromosomal recombination, measured by immunoglobulin gene conversion, and radiation-induced Rad51 nuclear focus formation, which is a putative intermediate step during recombinational repair, occurred as frequently inRAD52 −/− cells as in wild-type cells. Targeted integration frequencies, however, were consistently reduced inRAD52 −/− cells, showing a clear role for Rad52 in genetic recombination. These findings reveal striking differences between S. cerevisiae and vertebrates in the functions of RAD51 and RAD52.

Expression of the Runt domain-encoding PEBP2 alpha genes in T cells during thymic development.

The PEBP2 alpha A and PEBP2 alpha B genes encode the DNA-binding subunit of a murine transcription factor, PEBP2, which is implicated as a T-cell-specific transcriptional regulator. These two related genes share the evolutionarily conserved region encoding the Runt domain. PEBP2 alpha B is the murine counterpart of human AML1, which is located at the breakpoints of the 8;21 and 3;21 chromosome translocations associated with acute myeloid leukemia. Northern (RNA) blots of various adult mouse tissues revealed that the levels of expression of both genes were most prominent in the thymus. Furthermore, transcripts of PEBP2 alpha A and mouse AML1/PEBP2 alpha B were detected in T lymphocytes in the thymuses from day 16 embryos and newborns, as well as 4-week-old adult mice, by in situ hybridization. The expression of the genes persisted in peripheral lymph nodes of adult mice. The transcripts were detected in all the CD4- CD8-, CD4+ CD8+, CD4+ CD8-, and CD4- CD8+ cell populations. The results indicated that both genes are expressed in T cells throughout their development, supporting the notion that PEBP2 is a T-cell-specific transcription factor. Transcripts of mouse AML1/PEBP2 alpha B were also detected in day 12 fetal hematopoietic liver and in the bone marrow cells of newborn mice. The implication of mouse AML1/PEBP2 alpha B expression in hematopoietic cells other than those of T-cell lineage is discussed in relation to myeloid leukemogenesis.

The Essential Functions of Human Rad51 Are Independent of ATP Hydrolysis

ABSTRACT Genetic recombination and the repair of double-strand DNA breaks inSaccharomyces cerevisiae require Rad51, a homologue of theEscherichia coli RecA protein. In vitro, Rad51 binds DNA to form an extended nucleoprotein filament and catalyzes the ATP-dependent exchange of DNA between molecules with homologous sequences. Vertebrate Rad51 is essential for cell proliferation. Using site-directed mutagenesis of highly conserved residues of human Rad51 (hRad51) and gene targeting of the RAD51 locus in chicken DT40 cells, we examined the importance of Rad51’s highly conserved ATP-binding domain. Mutant hRad51 incapable of ATP hydrolysis (hRad51K-133R) binds DNA less efficiently than the wild type but catalyzes strand exchange between homologous DNAs. hRad51 does not need to hydrolyze ATP to allow vertebrate cell proliferation, form nuclear foci, or repair radiation-induced DNA damage. However, cells expressing hRad51K-133R show greatly reduced targeted integration frequencies. These findings show that ATP hydrolysis is involved in DNA binding by hRad51 and suggest that the extent of DNA complexed with hRad51 in nucleoprotein influences the efficiency of recombination.