Yuying Tong

Age at First Sexual Intercourse, Genes, and Social Context: Evidence from Twins and the Dopamine D4 Receptor Gene

We carried out two distinct types of genetic analysis with data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The first was a non-DNA twin analysis using monozygotic (identical) and same-sex dizygotic (fraternal) twins. The second analysis investigates the association between age at first sexual intercourse and the 48-bp repeat polymorphism in the dopamine receptor D4 gene (DRD4). The twin analysis shows that MZ twins correlate their timing of first sex to a much greater extent than do the same-sex DZ twins. Our analysis of the polymorphisms in DRD4 indicates that those with an any-3R genotype experienced a risk of first sexual intercourse 23% (p=.016), 233% (p=.0001), 28% (p=.012), and 69% (p=.006) higher than those with an other/other (or any-4R) genotype in the all-ethnicities (n=2,552), Asian, white, and Hispanic samples, respectively. The risk of first sex does not differ between the two genotypes in the African American sample. These results were obtained after adjusting the standard socioeconomic covariates, including gender, parental education, family structure, and community poverty in the regression model. Evidence from both twin and genetic-variant analyses points to a role of genes in the timing of first sexual intercourse.

Dopamine transporter, gender, and number of sexual partners among young adults

The dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) codes for a dopamine transporter protein, which limits the level and duration of dopamine receptor activation. The DAT1 gene is a strong candidate gene for reward-seeking behavior. This article reports compelling evidence for the association between the 40 bp variable number of tandem repeats in the DAT1 gene and the self-reported number of sexual partners among young adults in the United States using the sibling subsample of more than 2500 individuals who participated in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. We performed tests of genotype–gender interaction as well as analyses stratified by gender. Among the males, possessing one or two alleles of the 10 repeat is associated with an 80–100% increase (P<0.0001, 2df) in the number of sexual partners as compared with the homozygotes for the 9 repeat. The association holds in race/ethnicity-stratified analyses, in Allisons procedure that tests population stratification, and in within-family fixed-effects models. Covariate adjustment for a standard set of socioeconomic factors including religiosity, family structure, parental education, marital and cohabitation history, and neighborhood poverty did not attenuate these associations. Discussion is provided why this finding is absent among females.

Acculturation, gender disparity, and the sexual behavior of Asian American youth.

Asian American youth are less likely to be sexually active than adolescents from other ethnic groups; however, with acculturation, they may adopt the more liberal sexual norms of American society. Moreover, owing to differing parental expectations for sons and daughters about sexuality, gender disparity might exist in the adoption of American sexual norms. This article used the proportional hazards model and the generalized estimating equations Poisson model to examine how acculturation influences the initiation of sexual intercourse and the number of sexual partners. The results show that acculturation leads to more liberal sexual mores among Asian American youth. However, despite what might be expected from the sexual double standard, the models show that more acculturated females, as indicated by their use of English at home, had an earlier onset of sexual intercourse and a higher number of sexual partners. This is the opposite of what would be predicted by the sexual double standard theory. This might be due to the fact that Asian females tend to be more socially accepted by the host society than Asian males. Information on partners shows that Asian American females have more diversified racial backgrounds than their male counterparts. They are also more likely to have older sexual partners.

Foreign-born Concentration and Acculturation to Volunteering among Immigrant Youth

Using children of immigrants sample from National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, this study investigates how immigrant youth acculturating to the American social norm of volunteering and how the acculturation is modified by living in immigrant neighborhoods. Multilevel logistic regression produces distinct patterns for children living in high-SES and low-SES neighborhoods. In high-SES neighborhoods, being among foreign-born residents serves as a buffer against acculturating to the social norm for youth, and this buffer has an enduring impact when they enter into their early adulthood. Conversely, in low-SES neighborhoods, acculturating to this social norm is irrelevant to the proportion of foreign-born residents in their neighborhoods. However, the experience of growing up in such neighborhoods has the potential to enhance the acculturation to volunteering when the adolescents enter into young adulthood. The findings shed new light on segmented assimilation theory: that is, being among the foreign-born not only could prevent immigrant youth from downward assimilation, but also could restrict acculturation to positive social norms.

Education and fertility decline in China during transitional times: A cohort approach

We examine the effect of education on birth outcomes in China during the period of economic transition and large-scale changes in mass education and population control measures. Retrospective micro data from the 2008 Chinese General Social Survey and discrete time event history analysis are used to examine the fertility history of several cohorts of women born between 1945 and 1968. We observed births at different parities, distinguishing the education effect across cohorts and rural/urban sectors. We found differences across cohorts consistent with unique features of the Chinese context, such as the radical egalitarian era of educational expansion, and the Reform Era. We also found that despite the increase in some education levels across cohorts (e.g., junior high school in rural areas), birth chances were more likely to be concentrated among less educated women, suggesting the impact of factors related to returns to education and hence the desire for children.

Educational Disparities in Access to Health Insurance in China, 1989–2009

Abstract Using data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey, we examine changes in educational differentials in access to health insurance over the period 1989–2009. Our analysis yielded three notable results. Firstly, regardless of level of education, the overall health insurance access rate exhibited a U-shaped change during the study period and the majority of people have been covered by health insurance by 2009. Secondly, the better educated enjoyed the advantage in receiving health insurance, particularly for employment-based insurance. Thirdly, educational disparity in access to health insurance changed over time. Specifically, the influence of education on overall access to insurance has been in decline during the two decades studied, indicating a convergence of access to health insurance across education levels. In contrast, employment-based insurance has converged across education level in the earlier years but diverged in more recent years over our study period. We argue that these patterns should be understood in the context of market reforms and changes of state-welfare provision over time.

The Transition to First Marriage in China, 1966–2008: An Examination of Gender Differences in Education and Hukou Status

Abstract Using retrospective life history data from the 2008 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS), this study examines the entrance into first marriage in China, a country that has been experiencing profound socioeconomic changes for the past several decades. We examine educational differences across rural and urban regions and across gender as determinants of marriage. Results reveal that for rural women, increasing education (especially from the least educated to middle levels of education) decreases marriage chances. For urban women, increasing education does not affect their marriage chances, net of other factors. For the former, results are consistent with the broad East Asian cultural practice of women “marrying up.” For the latter, we argue that modernizing forces (e.g., improvements in education) have reduced the incidence of this practice. We also find effects attributable to unique features of the Chinese institutional context, such as the rural/urban divide and effects of the household registration (Hukou) system.

Les déterminants économiques et non économiques de la migration de retour en Thaïlande rurale

Cette note de recherche analyse les determinants economiques et non economiques des migrations de retour pour 3 021 jeunes originaires de la campagne thailandaise. Cette cohorte est suivie de maniere prospective pendant 16 ans, de la preadolescence au debut de l’âge adulte, a travers trois vagues d’enquetes en 1984, 1994 et 2000. Les donnees proviennent du projet Nang Rong, recherche longitudinale sur l’exode rural menee dans une region agricole du Nord-Est de la Thailande. Il s’agit, a partir cette etude, d’aller au-dela de la simple dichotomie economique « succes / echec », et d’analyser les facteurs institutionnels non economiques qui determinent le retour des migrants. Meme si on observe un phenomene de selection negative du capital humain, les liens avec des membres de la famille d’origine (enfants, conjoint, parents) sont egalement des determinants cles du retour. Ces facteurs non economiques, lies a l’environnement familial, ont un impact aussi puissant que les determinants economiques sur la migration de retour.

Resistant to change? The transition to parenthood among married adults in China

Using retrospective life history data from the 2008 Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) and discrete time event history analysis, this study investigates the transition to parenthood of adult males and females for the 1965 to 2004 marriage cohorts. We find that Chinese people generally prefer to become parents soon after marriage. We also find that more recent marriage cohorts are less likely to become parents compared to earlier cohort for males, but this is not the case for women. This indicates that economic or role incompatibility in general does not prevent women from becoming mothers, which in general supports the idea that there are alternative resources available for women to balance the role incompatibility in China’s context. The extended family is an important resource for married couples to rely upon to raise young children. This study sheds light on China’s family therapy practice, which should take into consideration the demographic trends and cultural factors in understanding the role conflict within the family, such as intergenerational relations and gender ideology.

Women's Labor Force Participation in Hong Kong: 1991–2011

Abstract Using Hong Kong population census and by-census data from 1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, and 2011, this study examined the trends and determinants of womens labor force participation (WLFP) in Hong Kong. It looked at the determinants of WLFP from the perspectives of availability, marketability, market demand, and new household economic theory. The results showed that the labor force participation for married women has been rising over the study period, but their availability to the labor market is still constrained by childrearing responsibilities. This is in spite of the fact that their education levels and the existence of domestic help are factors that ostensibly make it more possible for women to stay in the labor force. It also showed that other family members’ income (e.g., the husbands income) is an important factor for womens participation in the labor force, supporting the idea that the decision to stay in the labor force vs. to stay at home is a joint decision of the family. The study also implies that economic restructuring and the fluctuations in immigrant composition influence WLFP.