Zhe Liang

Genome-wide analysis of the MYB transcription factor superfamily in soybean

BackgroundThe MYB superfamily constitutes one of the most abundant groups of transcription factors described in plants. Nevertheless, their functions appear to be highly diverse and remain rather unclear. To date, no genome-wide characterization of this gene family has been conducted in a legume species. Here we report the first genome-wide analysis of the whole MYB superfamily in a legume species, soybean (Glycine max), including the gene structures, phylogeny, chromosome locations, conserved motifs, and expression patterns, as well as a comparative genomic analysis with Arabidopsis.ResultsA total of 244 R2R3-MYB genes were identified and further classified into 48 subfamilies based on a phylogenetic comparative analysis with their putative orthologs, showed both gene loss and duplication events. The phylogenetic analysis showed that most characterized MYB genes with similar functions are clustered in the same subfamily, together with the identification of orthologs by synteny analysis, functional conservation among subgroups of MYB genes was strongly indicated. The phylogenetic relationships of each subgroup of MYB genes were well supported by the highly conserved intron/exon structures and motifs outside the MYB domain. Synonymous nucleotide substitution (dN/dS) analysis showed that the soybean MYB DNA-binding domain is under strong negative selection. The chromosome distribution pattern strongly indicated that genome-wide segmental and tandem duplication contribute to the expansion of soybean MYB genes. In addition, we found that ~ 4% of soybean R2R3-MYB genes had undergone alternative splicing events, producing a variety of transcripts from a single gene, which illustrated the extremely high complexity of transcriptome regulation. Comparative expression profile analysis of R2R3-MYB genes in soybean and Arabidopsis revealed that MYB genes play conserved and various roles in plants, which is indicative of a divergence in function.ConclusionsIn this study we identified the largest MYB gene family in plants known to date. Our findings indicate that members of this large gene family may be involved in different plant biological processes, some of which may be potentially involved in legume-specific nodulation. Our comparative genomics analysis provides a solid foundation for future functional dissection of this family gene.

Genome-Wide Identification and Evolutionary and Expression Analyses of MYB-Related Genes in Land Plants

MYB proteins constitute one of the largest transcription factor families in plants. Recent evidence revealed that MYB-related genes play crucial roles in plants. However, compared with the R2R3-MYB type, little is known about the complex evolutionary history of MYB-related proteins in plants. Here, we present a genome-wide analysis of MYB-related proteins from 16 species of flowering plants, moss, Selaginella, and algae. We identified many MYB-related proteins in angiosperms, but few in algae. Phylogenetic analysis classified MYB-related proteins into five distinct subgroups, a result supported by highly conserved intron patterns, consensus motifs, and protein domain architecture. Phylogenetic and functional analyses revealed that the Circadian Clock Associated 1-like/R-R and Telomeric DNA-binding protein-like subgroups are >1 billion yrs old, whereas the I-box-binding factor-like and CAPRICE-like subgroups appear to be newly derived in angiosperms. We further demonstrated that the MYB-like domain has evolved under strong purifying selection, indicating the conservation of MYB-related proteins. Expression analysis revealed that the MYB-related gene family has a wide expression profile in maize and soybean development and plays important roles in development and stress responses. We hypothesize that MYB-related proteins initially diversified through three major expansions and domain shuffling, but remained relatively conserved throughout the subsequent plant evolution.

Massive expansion of the calpain gene family in unicellular eukaryotes

BackgroundCalpains are Ca2+-dependent cysteine proteases that participate in a range of crucial cellular processes. Dysfunction of these enzymes may cause, for instance, life-threatening diseases in humans, the loss of sex determination in nematodes and embryo lethality in plants. Although the calpain family is well characterized in animal and plant model organisms, there is a great lack of knowledge about these genes in unicellular eukaryote species (i.e. protists). Here, we study the distribution and evolution of calpain genes in a wide range of eukaryote genomes from major branches in the tree of life.ResultsOur investigations reveal 24 types of protein domains that are combined with the calpain-specific catalytic domain CysPc. In total we identify 41 different calpain domain architectures, 28 of these domain combinations have not been previously described. Based on our phylogenetic inferences, we propose that at least four calpain variants were established in the early evolution of eukaryotes, most likely before the radiation of all the major supergroups of eukaryotes. Many domains associated with eukaryotic calpain genes can be found among eubacteria or archaebacteria but never in combination with the CysPc domain.ConclusionsThe analyses presented here show that ancient modules present in prokaryotes, and a few de novo eukaryote domains, have been assembled into many novel domain combinations along the evolutionary history of eukaryotes. Some of the new calpain genes show a narrow distribution in a few branches in the tree of life, likely representing lineage-specific innovations. Hence, the functionally important classical calpain genes found among humans and vertebrates make up only a tiny fraction of the calpain family. In fact, a massive expansion of the calpain family occurred by domain shuffling among unicellular eukaryotes and contributed to a wealth of functionally different genes.

The Evolutionary History of R2R3-MYB Proteins Across 50 Eukaryotes: New Insights Into Subfamily Classification and Expansion.

R2R3-MYB proteins (2R-MYBs) are one of the main transcription factor families in higher plants. Since the evolutionary history of this gene family across the eukaryotic kingdom remains unknown, we performed a comparative analysis of 2R-MYBs from 50 major eukaryotic lineages, with particular emphasis on land plants. A total of 1548 candidates were identified among diverse taxonomic groups, which allowed for an updated classification of 73 highly conserved subfamilies, including many newly identified subfamilies. Our results revealed that the protein architectures, intron patterns, and sequence characteristics were remarkably conserved in each subfamily. At least four subfamilies were derived from early land plants, 10 evolved from spermatophytes, and 19 from angiosperms, demonstrating the diversity and preferential expansion of this gene family in land plants. Moreover, we determined that their remarkable expansion was mainly attributed to whole genome and segmental duplication, where duplicates were preferentially retained within certain subfamilies that shared three homologous intron patterns (a, b, and c) even though up to 12 types of patterns existed. Through our integrated distributions, sequence characteristics, and phylogenetic tree analyses, we confirm that 2R-MYBs are old and postulate that 3R-MYBs may be evolutionarily derived from 2R-MYBs via intragenic domain duplication.

The catalytic domain CysPc of the DEK1 calpain is functionally conserved in land plants

DEK1, the single calpain of land plants, is a member of the ancient membrane bound TML-CysPc-C2L calpain family that dates back 1.5 billion years. Here we show that the CysPc-C2L domains of land plant calpains form a separate sub-clade in the DEK1 clade of the phylogenetic tree of plants. The charophycean alga Mesostigma viride DEK1-like gene is clearly divergent from those in land plants, suggesting that a major evolutionary shift in DEK1 occurred during the transition to land plants. Based on genetic complementation of the Arabidopsis thaliana dek1-3 mutant using CysPc-C2L domains of various origins, we show that these two domains have been functionally conserved within land plants for at least 450 million years. This conclusion is based on the observation that the CysPc-C2L domains of DEK1 from the moss Physcomitrella patens complements the A. thaliana dek1-3 mutant phenotype. In contrast, neither the CysPc-C2L domains from M. viride nor chimeric animal-plant calpains complement this mutant. Co-evolution analysis identified differences in the interactions between the CysPc-C2L residues of DEK1 and classical calpains, supporting the view that the two enzymes are regulated by fundamentally different mechanisms. Using the A. thaliana dek1-3 complementation assay, we show that four conserved amino acid residues of two Ca²⁺-binding sites in the CysPc domain of classical calpains are conserved in land plants and functionally essential in A. thaliana DEK1.

DNA N6-Adenine Methylation in Arabidopsis thaliana

DNA methylation on N6-adenine (6mA) has recently been found to be a potentially epigenetic mark in several unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes. However, its distribution patterns and potential functions in land plants, which are primary producers for most ecosystems, remain largely unknown. Here we report global profiling of 6mA sites at single-nucleotide resolution in the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana at different developmental stages using single-molecule real-time sequencing. 6mA sites are widely distributed across the Arabidopsis genome and enriched over the pericentromeric heterochromatin regions. 6mA occurs more frequently in gene bodies than intergenic regions. Analysis of 6mA methylomes and RNA sequencing data demonstrates that 6mA frequency positively correlates with the gene expression level and the transition from vegetative to reproductive growth in Arabidopsis. Our results uncover 6mA as a DNA mark associated with actively expressed genes in Arabidopsis, suggesting that 6mA serves as a hitherto unknown epigenetic mark in land plants.

Calpain-Mediated Positional Information Directs Cell Wall Orientation to Sustain Plant Stem Cell Activity, Growth and Development

Eukaryotic development and stem cell control depend on the integration of cell positional sensing with cell cycle control and cell wall positioning, yet few factors that directly link these events are known. The DEFECTIVE KERNEL1 (DEK1) gene encoding the unique plant calpain protein is fundamental for development and growth, being essential to confer and maintain epidermal cell identity that allows development beyond the globular embryo stage. We show that DEK1 expression is highest in the actively dividing cells of seeds, meristems and vasculature. We further show that eliminating Arabidopsis DEK1 function leads to changes in developmental cues from the first zygotic division onward, altered microtubule patterns and misshapen cells, resulting in early embryo abortion. Expression of the embryonic marker genes WOX2, ATML1, PIN4, WUS and STM, related to axis organization, cell identity and meristem functions, is also altered in dek1 embryos. By monitoring cell layer-specific DEK1 down-regulation, we show that L1- and 35S-induced down-regulation mainly affects stem cell functions, causing severe shoot apical meristem phenotypes. These results are consistent with a requirement for DEK1 to direct layer-specific cellular activities and set downstream developmental cues. Our data suggest that DEK1 may anchor cell wall positions and control cell division and differentiation, thereby balancing the plants requirement to maintain totipotent stem cell reservoirs while simultaneously directing growth and organ formation. A role for DEK1 in regulating microtubule-orchestrated cell wall orientation during cell division can explain its effects on embryonic development, and suggests a more general function for calpains in microtubule organization in eukaryotic cells.

N6-Methyladenine DNA Modification in the Human Genome

DNA N6-methyladenine (6mA) modification is the most prevalent DNA modification in prokaryotes, but whether it exists in human cells and whether it plays a role in human diseases remain enigmatic. Here, we showed that 6mA is extensively present in the human genome, and we cataloged 881,240 6mA sites accounting for ∼0.051% of the total adenines. [G/C]AGG[C/T] was the most significantly associated motif with 6mA modification. 6mA sites were enriched in the coding regions and mark actively transcribed genes in human cells. DNA 6mA and N6-demethyladenine modification in the human genome were mediated by methyltransferase N6AMT1 and demethylase ALKBH1, respectively. The abundance of 6mA was significantly lower in cancers, accompanied by decreased N6AMT1 and increased ALKBH1 levels, and downregulation of 6mA modification levels promoted tumorigenesis. Collectively, our results demonstrate that DNA 6mA modification is extensively present in human cells and the decrease of genomic DNA 6mA promotes human tumorigenesis.

5-Methylcytosine RNA Methylation in Arabidopsis Thaliana

5-Methylcytosine (m5C) is a well-characterized DNA modification, and is also predominantly reported in abundant non-coding RNAs in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. However, the distribution and biological functions of m5C in plant mRNAs remain largely unknown. Here, we report transcriptome-wide profiling of RNA m5C in Arabidopsis thaliana by applying m5C RNA immunoprecipitation followed by a deep-sequencing approach (m5C-RIP-seq). LC-MS/MS and dot blot analyses reveal a dynamic pattern of m5C mRNA modification in various tissues and at different developmental stages. m5C-RIP-seq analysis identified 6045 m5C peaks in 4465 expressed genes in young seedlings. We found that m5C is enriched in coding sequences with two peaks located immediately after start codons and before stop codons, and is associated with mRNAs with low translation activity. We further demonstrated that an RNA (cytosine-5)-methyltransferase, tRNA-specific methyltransferase 4B (TRM4B), exhibits m5C RNA methyltransferase activity. Mutations in TRM4B display defects in root development and decreased m5C peaks. TRM4B affects the transcript levels of the genes involved in root development, which is positively correlated with their mRNA stability and m5C levels. Our results suggest that m5C in mRNA is a new epitranscriptome marker inArabidopsis, and that regulation of this modification is an integral part of gene regulatory networks underlying plant development.

Genome-Wide Analysis, Classification, Evolution, and Expression Analysis of the Cytochrome P450 93 Family in Land Plants

Cytochrome P450 93 family (CYP93) belonging to the cytochrome P450 superfamily plays important roles in diverse plant processes. However, no previous studies have investigated the evolution and expression of the members of this family. In this study, we performed comprehensive genome-wide analysis to identify CYP93 genes in 60 green plants. In all, 214 CYP93 proteins were identified; they were specifically found in flowering plants and could be classified into ten subfamilies—CYP93A–K, with the last two being identified first. CYP93A is the ancestor that was derived in flowering plants, and the remaining showed lineage-specific distribution—CYP93B and CYP93C are present in dicots; CYP93F is distributed only in Poaceae; CYP93G and CYP93J are monocot-specific; CYP93E is unique to legumes; CYP93H and CYP93K are only found in Aquilegia coerulea, and CYP93D is Brassicaceae-specific. Each subfamily generally has conserved gene numbers, structures, and characteristics, indicating functional conservation during evolution. Synonymous nucleotide substitution (dN/dS) analysis showed that CYP93 genes are under strong negative selection. Comparative expression analyses of CYP93 genes in dicots and monocots revealed that they are preferentially expressed in the roots and tend to be induced by biotic and/or abiotic stresses, in accordance with their well-known functions in plant secondary biosynthesis.