Zhengliang L. Wu

Universal phosphatase-coupled glycosyltransferase assay

A nonradioactive glycosyltransferase assay is described here. This method takes advantage of specific phosphatases that can be added into glycosyltransferase reactions to quantitatively release inorganic phosphate from the leaving groups of glycosyltransferase reactions. The released phosphate group is then detected using colorimetric malachite-based reagents. Because the amount of phosphate released is directly proportional to the sugar molecule transferred in a glycosyltransferase reaction, this method can be used to obtain accurate kinetic parameters of the glycosyltransferase. The assay can be performed in multiwell plates and quantitated by a plate reader, thus making it amenable to high-throughput screening. It has been successfully applied to all glycosyltransferases available to us, including glucosyltransferases, N-acetylglucosaminyltransferases, N-acetylgalactosyltransferases, galactosyltransferases, fucosyltransferases and sialyltransferases. As examples, we first assayed Clostridium difficile toxin B, a protein O-glucosyltransferase that specifically monoglucosylates and inactivates Rho family small GTPases; we then showed that human KTELC1, a homolog of Rumi from Drosophila, was able to hydrolyze UDP-Glc; and finally, we measured the kinetic parameters of human sialyltransferase ST6GAL1.

Active 1918 pandemic flu viral neuraminidase has distinct N-glycan profile and is resistant to trypsin digestion

The 1918 pandemic flu virus caused one of the most deadly pandemics in human history. To search for unique structural features of the neuraminidase from this virus that might have contributed to its unusual virulence, we expressed this enzyme. The purified enzyme appeared as a monomer, a dimer and a tetramer, with only the tetramer being active and therefore biologically relevant. The monomer and the dimer could not be oligomerized into the tetramer in solution, suggesting that some unique structural features were required for oligomerization and activation. These features could be related to N-glycosylation, because the tetramer displayed different N-glycans than the monomer and the dimer. Furthermore, the tetramer was found to be resistant to trypsin digestion, which may give the virus the capability to invade tissues that are normally not infected by influenza viruses and make the virus more robust for infection.

A Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-based Approach to Characterize the Substrate Specificity of Mammalian Heparanase

Background: Heparanase remodels ECM and is associated with cancer metastasis and angiogenesis. Results: An LC-MS-based approach was developed to profile the structures of the heparanase cleavage sites in heterogeneous HS chains. Conclusion: Heparanase cleaves at the non-reducing side of highly sulfated HS domains. Significance: The results suggest a mechanism for heparanase to activate nascent growth factor binding domains within HS. Extracellular heparanase activity releases growth factors and angiogenic factors from heparan sulfate (HS) storage sites and alters the integrity of the extracellular matrix. These activities lead to a loss of normal cell matrix adherent junctions and correlate with invasive cellular phenotypes. Elevated expression of heparanase is associated with several human cancers and with vascular remodeling. Heparanase cleaves only a limited fraction of glucuronidic linkages in HS. There have been few investigations of the functional consequences of heparanase activity, largely due to the heterogeneity and complexity of HS. Here, we report a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)-based approach to profile the terminal structures created by heparanase digestion and reconstruct the heparanase cleavage sites from the products. Using this method, we demonstrate that heparanase cleaves at the non-reducing side of highly sulfated HS domains, exposing cryptic growth factor binding sites. This cleavage pattern is observed in HS from several tissue sources, regardless of overall sulfation degree, indicating a common recognition pattern. We further demonstrate that heparanase cleavage of HS chains leads to increased ability to support FGF2-dependent cell proliferation. These results suggest a new mechanism to explain how heparanase might potentiate the uncontrolled cell proliferation associated with cancer through its ability to activate nascent growth factor-promoting domains within HS.

Glycoengineering of E‐Selectin Ligands by Intracellular versus Extracellular Fucosylation Differentially Affects Osteotropism of Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells

Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) hold great promise in cellular therapeutics for skeletal diseases but lack expression of E‐selectin ligands that direct homing of blood‐borne cells to bone marrow. Previously, we described a method to engineer E‐selectin ligands on the MSC surface by exofucosylating cells with fucosyltransferase VI (FTVI) and its donor sugar, GDP‐Fucose, enforcing transient surface expression of the potent E‐selectin ligand HCELL with resultant enhanced osteotropism of intravenously administered cells. Here, we sought to determine whether E‐selectin ligands created via FTVI‐exofucosylation are distinct in identity and function to those created by FTVI expressed intracellularly. To this end, we introduced synthetic modified mRNA encoding FTVI (FUT6‐modRNA) into human MSCs. FTVI‐exofucosylation (i.e., extracellular fucosylation) and FUT6‐modRNA transfection (i.e., intracellular fucosylation) produced similar peak increases in cell surface E‐selectin ligand levels, and shear‐based functional assays showed comparable increases in tethering/rolling on human endothelial cells expressing E‐selectin. However, biochemical analyses revealed that intracellular fucosylation induced expression of both intracellular and cell surface E‐selectin ligands and also induced a more sustained expression of E‐selectin ligands compared to extracellular fucosylation. Notably, live imaging studies to assess homing of human MSC to mouse calvarium revealed more osteotropism following intravenous administration of intracellularly‐fucosylated cells compared to extracellularly‐fucosylated cells. This study represents the first direct analysis of E‐selectin ligand expression programmed on human MSCs by FTVI‐mediated intracellular versus extracellular fucosylation. The observed differential biologic effects of FTVI activity in these two contexts may yield new strategies for improving the efficacy of human MSCs in clinical applications. Stem Cells 2016;34:2501–2511

Detecting O-GlcNAc using in vitro sulfation

O-linked β-N-acetylglucosamine (O-GlcNAc) glycosylation, the covalent attachment of N-acetylglucosamine to serine and threonine residues of proteins, is a post-translational modification that shares many features with protein phosphorylation. O-GlcNAc is essential for cell survival and plays important role in many biological processes (e.g. transcription, translation, cell division) and human diseases (e.g. diabetes, Alzheimers disease, cancer). However, detection of O-GlcNAc is challenging. Here, a method for O-GlcNAc detection using in vitro sulfation with two N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc)-specific sulfotransferases, carbohydrate sulfotransferase 2 and carbohydrate sulfotransferase 4, and the radioisotope (35)S is described. Sulfation on free GlcNAc is first demonstrated, and then on O-GlcNAc residues of peptides as well as nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins. It is also demonstrated that the sulfation on O-GlcNAc is sensitive to OGT and O-β-N-acetylglucosaminidase treatment. The labeled samples are separated on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and visualized by autoradiography. Overall, the method is sensitive, specific and convenient.

Inhibition of SULT4A1 Expression Induces Up-Regulation of Phototransduction Gene Expression in 72-Hour Postfertilization Zebrafish Larvae

Sulfotransferase (SULT) 4A1 is an orphan enzyme that shares distinct structure and sequence similarities with other cytosolic SULTs. SULT4A1 is primarily expressed in neuronal tissue and is also the most conserved SULT, having been identified in every vertebrate investigated to date. Certain haplotypes of the SULT4A1 gene are correlated with higher baseline psychopathology in schizophrenic patients, but no substrate or function for SULT4A1 has yet been identified despite its high level of sequence conservation. In this study, deep RNA sequencing was used to search for alterations in gene expression in 72-hour postfertilization zebrafish larvae following transient SULT4A1 knockdown (KD) utilizing splice blocking morpholino oligonucleotides. This study demonstrates that transient inhibition of SULT4A1 expression in developing zebrafish larvae results in the up-regulation of several genes involved in phototransduction. SULT4A1 KD was verified by immunoblot analysis and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). Gene regulation changes identified by deep RNA sequencing were validated by qPCR. This study is the first identification of a cellular process whose regulation appears to be associated with SULT4A1 expression.

Detection of specific glycosaminoglycans and glycan epitopes by in vitro sulfation using recombinant sulfotransferases

Sulfated glycans play critical roles during the development, differentiation and growth of various organisms. The most well-studied sulfated molecules are sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). Recent incidents of heparin drug contamination convey the importance of having a convenient and sensitive method for detecting different GAGs. Here, we describe a molecular method to detect GAGs in biological and biomedical samples. Because the sulfation of GAGs is generally not saturated in vivo, it is possible to introduce the radioisotope (35)S in vitro using recombinant sulfotransferases, thereby allowing detection of minute quantities of these molecules. This strategy was also successfully applied in the detection of other glycans. As examples, we detected contaminant GAGs in commercial heparin, heparan sulfate and chondroitin samples. The identities of the contaminant GAGs were further confirmed by lyase digestion. Oversulfated chondroitin sulfate was detectable only following a simple desulfation step. Additionally, in vitro sulfation by sulfotransferases allowed us to map glycan epitopes in biological samples. This was illustrated using mouse embryo and rat organ tissue sections labeled with the following carbohydrate sulfotransferases: CHST3, CHST15, HS3ST1, CHST4 and CHST10.

Imaging specific cellular glycan structures using glycosyltransferases via click chemistry

Abstract Heparan sulfate (HS) is a polysaccharide fundamentally important for biologically activities. T/Tn antigens are universal carbohydrate cancer markers. Here, we report the specific imaging of these carbohydrates using a mesenchymal stem cell line and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). The staining specificities were demonstrated by comparing imaging of different glycans and validated by either removal of target glycans, which results in loss of signal, or installation of target glycans, which results in gain of signal. As controls, representative key glycans including O-GlcNAc, lactosaminyl glycans and hyaluronan were also imaged. HS staining revealed novel architectural features of the extracellular matrix (ECM) of HUVEC cells. Results from T/Tn antigen staining suggest that O-GalNAcylation is a rate-limiting step for O-glycan synthesis. Overall, these highly specific approaches for HS and T/Tn antigen imaging should greatly facilitate the detection and functional characterization of these biologically important glycans.

Nonradioactive Glycosyltransferase and Sulfotransferase Assay to Study Glycosaminoglycan Biosynthesis

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are linear polysaccharides with repeating disaccharide units. GAGs include heparin, heparan sulfate, chondroitin sulfate, dermatan sulfate, keratan sulfate, and hyaluronan. All GAGs, except for hyaluronan, are usually sulfated. GAGs are polymerized by mono- or dual-specific glycosyltransferases and sulfated by various sulfotransferases. To further our understanding of GAG chain length regulation and synthesis of specific sulfation motifs on GAG chains, it is imperative to understand the kinetics of GAG synthetic enzymes. Here, nonradioactive colorimetric enzymatic assays are described for these glycosyltransferases and sulfotransferases. In both cases, the leaving nucleotides or nucleosides are hydrolyzed using specific phosphatases, and the released phosphate is subsequently detected using malachite reagents.