Zhenhui Chen

Small-Conductance Calcium-Activated Potassium Channel and Recurrent Ventricular Fibrillation in Failing Rabbit Ventricles

Rationale: Fibrillation/defibrillation episodes in failing ventricles may be followed by action potential duration (APD) shortening and recurrent spontaneous ventricular fibrillation (SVF). Objective: We hypothesized that activation of apamin-sensitive small-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SK) channels is responsible for the postshock APD shortening in failing ventricles. Methods and Results: A rabbit model of tachycardia-induced heart failure was used. Simultaneous optical mapping of intracellular Ca2+ and membrane potential (Vm) was performed in failing and nonfailing ventricles. Three failing ventricles developed SVF (SVF group); 9 did not (no-SVF group). None of the 10 nonfailing ventricles developed SVF. Increased pacing rate and duration augmented the magnitude of APD shortening. Apamin (1 &mgr;mol/L) eliminated recurrent SVF and increased postshock APD80 in the SVF group from 126±5 to 153±4 ms (P<0.05) and from 147±2 to 162±3 ms (P<0.05) in the no-SVF group but did not change APD80 in nonfailing group. Whole cell patch-clamp studies at 36°C showed that the apamin-sensitive K+ current (IKAS) density was significantly larger in the failing than in the normal ventricular epicardial myocytes, and epicardial IKAS density was significantly higher than midmyocardial and endocardial myocytes. Steady-state Ca2+ response of IKAS was leftward-shifted in the failing cells compared with the normal control cells, indicating increased Ca2+ sensitivity of IKAS in failing ventricles. The Kd was 232±5 nmol/L for failing myocytes and 553±78 nmol/L for normal myocytes (P=0.002). Conclusions: Heart failure heterogeneously increases the sensitivity of IKAS to intracellular Ca2+, leading to upregulation of IKAS, postshock APD shortening, and recurrent SVF.

Intracellular Calcium Dynamics and Acceleration of Sinus Rhythm by β-Adrenergic Stimulation

Background— Recent evidence indicates that membrane voltage and Ca2+ clocks jointly regulate sinoatrial node (SAN) automaticity. Here we test the hypothesis that sinus rate acceleration by &bgr;-adrenergic stimulation involves synergistic interactions between these clock mechanisms. Methods and Results— We simultaneously mapped intracellular calcium (Cai) and membrane potential in 25 isolated canine right atrium, using previously described criteria of the timing of late diastolic Cai elevation (LDCAE) relative to the action potential upstroke to detect the Ca2+ clock. Before isoproterenol, the earliest pacemaking site occurred in the inferior SAN, and LDCAE was observed in only 4 of 25 preparations. Isoproterenol infusion (1 &mgr;mol/L) increased sinus rate and shifted pacemaking site to superior SAN, concomitant with the appearance of LDCAE preceding the action potential upstroke by 98±31 ms. Caffeine had similar effects, whereas sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ depletion with ryanodine and thapsigargin prevented isoproterenol-induced LDCAE and blunted sinus rate acceleration. Cai transient relaxation time during isoproterenol was shorter in superior SAN (124±34 ms) than inferior SAN (138±24 ms; P=0.01) or right atrium (164±33 ms; P=0.001) and was associated with a lower sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase pump to phospholamban protein ratio in SAN than in right atrium. Hyperpolarization-activated pacemaker current (If) blockade with ZD 7288 modestly blunted but did not prevent LDCAE or sinus rate acceleration by isoproterenol. Conclusions— Acceleration of the Ca2+ clock in the superior SAN plays an important role in sinus acceleration during &bgr;-adrenergic stimulation, interacting synergistically with the voltage clock to increase sinus rate.

Heterogeneous upregulation of apamin-sensitive potassium currents in failing human ventricles.

Background We previously reported that IKAS are heterogeneously upregulated in failing rabbit ventricles and play an important role in arrhythmogenesis. This study goal is to test the hypothesis that subtype 2 of the small‐conductance Ca2+ activated K+ (SK2) channel and apamin‐sensitive K+ currents (IKAS) are upregulated in failing human ventricles. Methods and Results We studied 12 native hearts from transplant recipients (heart failure [HF] group) and 11 ventricular core biopsies from patients with aortic stenosis and normal systolic function (non‐HF group). IKAS and action potential were recorded with patch‐clamp techniques, and SK2 protein expression was studied by Western blotting. When measured at 1 μmol/L Ca2+ concentration, IKAS was 4.22 (median) (25th and 75th percentiles, 2.86 and 6.96) pA/pF for the HF group (n=11) and 0.98 (0.54 and 1.72) pA/pF for the non‐HF group (n=8, P=0.008). IKAS was lower in the midmyocardial cells than in the epicardial and the endocardial cells. The Ca2+ dependency of IKAS in HF myocytes was shifted leftward compared to non‐HF myocytes (Kd 314 versus 605 nmol/L). Apamin (100 nmol/L) increased the action potential durations by 1.77% (−0.9% and 7.3%) in non‐HF myocytes and by 11.8% (5.7% and 13.9%) in HF myocytes (P=0.02). SK2 protein expression was 3‐fold higher in HF than in non‐HF. Conclusions There is heterogeneous upregulation of IKAS densities in failing human ventricles. The midmyocardial layer shows lower IKAS densities than epicardial and endocardial layers of cells. Increase in both Ca2+ sensitivity and SK2 protein expression contributes to the IKAS upregulation.

Reexamination of the role of the leucine/isoleucine zipper residues of phospholamban in inhibition of the Ca2+ pump of cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Phospholamban is a small phosphoprotein inhibitor of the Ca2+-pump in cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum, which shows a distinct oligomeric distribution between monomers and homopentamers that are stabilized through Leu/Ile zipper interactions. A two-faced model of phospholamban inhibition of the Ca2+-pump was proposed, in which the Leu/Ile zipper residues located on one face of the transmembrane α-helix regulate the pentamer to monomer equilibrium, whereas residues on the other face of the helix bind to and inhibit the pump. Here we tested this two-faced model of phospholamban action by analyzing the functional effects of a new series of Leu/Ile zipper mutants. Pentameric stabilities of the mutants were quantified at different SDS concentrations. We show that several phospholamban mutants with hydrophobic amino acid substitutions at the Leu/Ile zipper region retain the ability to form pentamers but at the same time give the same or even stronger (i.e. L37I-PLB) inhibition of the Ca2+-pump than do mutants that are more completely monomeric. Steric constraints prevent the Leu/Ile zipper residues sequestered in the interior of the phospholamban pentamer from binding to the Ca2+-pump, leading to the conclusion that the zipper residues access the pump from the phospholamban monomer, which is the active inhibitory species. A modified model of phospholamban transmembrane domain action is proposed, in which the membrane span of the phospholamban monomer maintains contacts with the Ca2+-pump around most of its circumference, including residues located in the Leu/Ile zipper region.

Low-level vagus nerve stimulation upregulates small conductance calcium-activated potassium channels in the stellate ganglion

BACKGROUND Small conductance calcium-activated potassium (SK) channels are responsible for afterhyperpolarization that suppresses nerve discharges. OBJECTIVES To test the hypothesis that low-level vagus nerve stimulation (LL-VNS) leads to the upregulation of SK2 proteins in the left stellate ganglion. METHODS Six dogs (group 1) underwent 1-week LL-VNS of the left cervical vagus nerve. Five normal dogs (group 2) were used as controls. SK2 protein levels were examined by using Western blotting. The ratio between SK2 and glyceraldehydes-3-phosphate-dehydrogenase levels was used as an arbitrary unit (AU). RESULTS We found higher SK2 expression in group 1 (0.124 ± 0.049 AU) than in group 2 (0.085 ± 0.031 AU; P<.05). Immunostaining showed that the density of nerve structures stained with SK2 antibody was also higher in group 1 (11,546 ± 7,271 μm(2)/mm(2)) than in group 2 (5321 ± 3164 μm(2)/mm(2); P<.05). There were significantly more ganglion cells without immunoreactivity to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) in group 1 (11.4%±2.3%) than in group 2 (4.9% ± 0.7%; P<.05). The TH-negative ganglion cells mostly stained positive for choline acetyltransferase (95.9% ± 2.8% in group 1 and 86.1% ± 4.4% in group 2; P = .10). Immunofluorescence confocal microscopy revealed a significant decrease in the SK2 staining in the cytosol but an increase in the SK2 staining on the membrane of the ganglion cells in group 1 compared to group 2. CONCLUSIONS Left LL-VNS results in the upregulation of SK2 proteins, increased SK2 protein expression in the cell membrane, and increased TH-negative (mostly choline acetyltransferase-positive) ganglion cells in the left stellate ganglion. These changes may underlie the antiarrhythmic efficacy of LL-VNS in ambulatory dogs.

The Structural Basis for Phospholamban Inhibition of the Calcium Pump in Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

Background: Phospholamban (PLB) regulates sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) activity and is thus a key regulator of cardiac contractility. Results: We present the crystal structure of SERCA in complex with PLB at 2.8-Å resolution. Conclusion: PLB stabilizes a divalent cation-free conformation of SERCA with collapsed Ca2+ binding sites. We call the structure E2-PLB. Significance: The E2-PLB structure explains how PLB decreases Ca2+ affinity and depresses cardiac contractility. P-type ATPases are a large family of enzymes that actively transport ions across biological membranes by interconverting between high (E1) and low (E2) ion-affinity states; these transmembrane transporters carry out critical processes in nearly all forms of life. In striated muscle, the archetype P-type ATPase, SERCA (sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase), pumps contractile-dependent Ca2+ ions into the lumen of sarcoplasmic reticulum, which initiates myocyte relaxation and refills the sarcoplasmic reticulum in preparation for the next contraction. In cardiac muscle, SERCA is regulated by phospholamban (PLB), a small inhibitory phosphoprotein that decreases the Ca2+ affinity of SERCA and attenuates contractile strength. cAMP-dependent phosphorylation of PLB reverses Ca2+-ATPase inhibition with powerful contractile effects. Here we present the long sought crystal structure of the PLB-SERCA complex at 2.8-Å resolution. The structure was solved in the absence of Ca2+ in a novel detergent system employing alkyl mannosides. The structure shows PLB bound to a previously undescribed conformation of SERCA in which the Ca2+ binding sites are collapsed and devoid of divalent cations (E2-PLB). This new structure represents one of the key unsolved conformational states of SERCA and provides a structural explanation for how dephosphorylated PLB decreases Ca2+ affinity and depresses cardiac contractility.

Mechanism of Reversal of Phospholamban Inhibition of the Cardiac Ca2+-ATPase by Protein Kinase A and by Anti-phospholamban Monoclonal Antibody 2D12

Our model of phospholamban (PLB) regulation of the cardiac Ca2+-ATPase in sarcoplasmic reticulum (SERCA2a) states that PLB binds to the Ca2+-free, E2 conformation of SERCA2a and blocks it from transitioning from E2 to E1, the Ca2+-bound state. PLB and Ca2+ binding to SERCA2a are mutually exclusive, and PLB inhibition of SERCA2a is manifested as a decreased apparent affinity of SERCA2a for Ca2+. Here we extend this model to explain the reversal of SERCA2a inhibition that occurs after phosphorylation of PLB at Ser16 by protein kinase A (PKA) and after binding of the anti-PLB monoclonal antibody 2D12, which recognizes residues 7–13 of PLB. Site-specific cysteine variants of PLB were co-expressed with SERCA2a, and the effects of PKA phosphorylation and 2D12 on Ca2+-ATPase activity and cross-linking to SERCA2a were monitored. In Ca2+-ATPase assays, PKA phosphorylation and 2D12 partially and completely reversed SERCA2a inhibition by decreasing KCa values for enzyme activation, respectively. In cross-linking assays, cross-linking of PKA-phosphorylated PLB to SERCA2a was inhibited at only two of eight sites when conducted in the absence of Ca2+ favoring E2. However, at a subsaturating Ca2+ concentration supporting some E1, cross-linking of phosphorylated PLB to SERCA2a was attenuated at all eight sites. KCa values for cross-linking inhibition were decreased nearly 2-fold at all sites by PLB phosphorylation, demonstrating that phosphorylated PLB binds more weakly to SERCA2a than dephosphorylated PLB. In parallel assays, 2D12 blocked PLB cross-linking to SERCA2a at all eight sites regardless of Ca2+ concentration. Our results demonstrate that 2D12 restores maximal Ca2+-ATPase activity by physically disrupting the binding interaction between PLB and SERCA2a. Phosphorylation of PLB by PKA weakens the binding interaction between PLB and SERCA2a (yielding more PLB-free SERCA2a molecules at intermediate Ca2+ concentrations), only partially restoring Ca2+ affinity and Ca2+-ATPase activity.

Close Proximity between Residue 30 of Phospholamban and Cysteine 318 of the Cardiac Ca2+ Pump Revealed by Intermolecular Thiol Cross-linking

Phospholamban (PLB) is a 52-amino acid inhibitor of the Ca2+-ATPase in cardiac sarcoplasmic reticulum (SERCA2a), which acts by decreasing the apparent affinity of the enzyme for Ca2+. To localize binding sites of SERCA2a for PLB, we performed Cys-scanning mutagenesis of PLB, co-expressed the PLB mutants with SERCA2a in insect cell microsomes, and tested for cross-linking of the mutated PLB molecules to SERCA2a using 1,6-bismaleimidohexane, a 10-Å-long, homobifunctional thiol cross-linking agent. Of several mutants tested, only PLB with a Cys replacement at position 30 (N30C-PLB) cross-linked to SERCA2a. Cross-linking occurred specifically and with high efficiency. The process was abolished by micromolar Ca2+ or by an anti-PLB monoclonal antibody and was inhibited 50% by phosphorylation of PLB by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. The SERCA2a inhibitors thapsigargin and cyclopiazonic acid also completely prevented cross-linking. The two essential requirements for cross-linking of N30C-PLB to SERCA2a were a Ca2+-free enzyme and, unexpectedly, a micromolar concentration of ATP or ADP, demonstrating that N30C-PLB cross-links preferentially to the nucleotide-bound, E2 state of SERCA2a. Sequencing of a purified proteolytic fragment in combination with SERCA2a mutagenesis identified Cys318 of SERCA2a as the sole amino acid cross-linked to N30C-PLB. The proximity of residue 30 of PLB to Cys318 of SERCA2a suggests that PLB may interfere with Ca2+ activation of SERCA2a by a protein interaction occurring near transmembrane helix M4.

Structural Domains in Phospholemman A Possible Role for the Carboxyl Terminus in Channel Inactivation

Phospholemman (PLM) is a small (72-amino acid) transmembrane protein found in cardiac sarcolemma that is a major substrate for several protein kinases in vivo. Detailed structural data for PLM is lacking, but several studies have described an ion conductance that results from PLM expression in oocytes. Moreover, addition of purified PLM to lipid bilayers generates similar ion currents, suggesting that the PLM molecule itself might be sufficient for channel formation. To provide a framework for understanding the function of PLM, we investigated PLM topology and structure in sarcolemmal membrane vesicles and analyzed purified recombinant PLM. Immunoblot analyses with site-specific antibodies revealed that the extracellular segment (residues 1 to 17) exists in a protected configuration highly resistant to proteases, even in detergent solutions. The intracellular portion of the molecule (residues 38 to 72), in contrast, was highly susceptible to proteases. Trypsin treatment produced a limit peptide (residues 1 to 43), which showed little change in electrophoretic mobility in SDS gels and retained the ion-channel activity in lipid bilayers that is characteristic of the full-length protein. In addition, we found that conductance through PLM channels exhibited rapid inactivation during depolarizing ramps at voltages greater than +/- 50 mV, Channels formed by trypsinized PLM or recombinant PLM 1-43 exhibited dramatic reductions in voltage-dependent inactivations. Our data point to distinct domains within the PLM molecule that may correlate with functional properties of channel activity observed in oocytes and lipid bilayers.

Cross-linking of C-terminal Residues of Phospholamban to the Ca2+ Pump of Cardiac Sarcoplasmic Reticulum to Probe Spatial and Functional Interactions within the Transmembrane Domain

Interactions between the transmembrane domains of phospholamban (PLB) and the cardiac Ca2+ pump (SERCA2a) have been investigated by chemical cross-linking. Specifically, C-terminal, transmembrane residues 45–52 of PLB were individually mutated to Cys, then cross-linked to V89C in the M2 helix of SERCA2a with the thiol-specific cross-linking reagents Cu2+-phenanthroline, dibromobimane, and bismaleimidohexane. V49C-, M50C-, and L52C-PLB all cross-linked strongly to V89C-SERCA2a, coupling to 70–100% of SERCA2a molecules. Residues 45–48 and 51 of PLB also cross-linked to V89C of SERCA2a, but more weakly. Evidence for the mechanism of PLB regulation of SERCA2a was provided by the conformational dependence of cross-linking. In particular, the required absence of Ca2+ for cross-linking implicated the E2 conformation of SERCA2a, and its enhancement by ATP confirmed E2·ATP as the conformation with the highest affinity for PLB. In contrast, E2 phosphorylated with inorganic phosphate (E2P) and E2 inhibited by thapsigargin (E2·TG) both failed to cross-link to PLB. These results with transmembrane PLB residues are completely consistent with cytoplasmic PLB residues studied previously, suggesting that the dissociation of PLB from the Ca2+ pump is complete, not partial, when the pump binds Ca2+ (E1·Ca2) or adopts the E2P or E2·TG conformations. V49C of PLB cross-linked to 100% of SERCA2a molecules, suggesting that this residue might have functional importance for regulation. Indeed, we found that mutation of Val49 to smaller side-chained residues V49A or V49G augmented PLB inhibition, whereas mutation to the larger hydrophobic residue, V49L, prevented PLB inhibition. A model for the interaction of PLB with SERCA2a is presented, showing that Val49 fits into a constriction at the lumenal end of the M2 helix of SERCA, possibly controlling access of PLB to its binding site on SERCA.