Zhuoni Zhang

Changes in Educational Inequality in China, 1990-2005: Evidence from the Population Census Data

This chapter examines the trend in school enrollment and transitions to senior high school and to college in China for selected young cohorts since the 1990s, based on the analyses of the sample data from population censuses in 1990 and 2000 and the mini-census in 2005. We pay particular attention to educational inequality based on gender and the household registration system (hukou) in the context of educational expansion. Results show a substantial increase in educational opportunities over time at all levels. In particular, women have gained relatively more; gender inequality has decreased over time, and the gap in college enrollments was even reversed to favor women in 2005. However, rural–urban inequality was enlarged in the 1990s. The educational expansion has mainly benefited females and urban residents.

Social origins, hukou conversion, and the wellbeing of urban residents in contemporary China

This paper examines the determinants and consequences of rural to urban registration (hukou) mobility in contemporary China, focusing on the link between social origins, hukou conversion, and the consequences of conversion. In contrast to massive rural-urban migration, hukou conversion is difficult and rare, but childhood urban residence increases the likelihood of achieving an urban hukou. Compared to people with urban origins, hukou converters are more likely to enter tertiary institutions, but are significantly less likely to do so subsequent to hukou conversion. Individual converters from rural origins are more likely to work in non-manual occupations. Collective converters earn significantly less than people with urban origins. Individual converters with rural childhoods, who used to be at the bottom of the society, are significantly happier than other urban residents, although they are less healthy. These results show that the effect of hukou conversion varies across hukou converters from different social origins.

Social Change, Cohort Quality and Economic Adaptation of Chinese Immigrants in Hong Kong, 1991-2006

This paper analyzes a series of population census and by-census data from 1991 to 2006 to examine the economic adaptation of Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong, focusing on their employment, occupational and earnings attainment. We pay particular attention to the adaptation of immigrants over time, and the effect of changes in the (overall) quality of the immigration cohort as a result of the immigration policy shift after Hong Kongs reunification with China in 1997. Results show that at the time of entry, mainland immigrants were less likely to be employed, more likely to be trapped in elementary occupations and to be earning much less than the natives. As they stayed longer, the gaps tended to decrease, but most immigrants were unable to reach parity with the natives with respect to earnings throughout their working lives. Men generally adapted at a faster pace than women. While new immigrants after 1997 fared worse in terms of employment and occupational attainment compared to those who arrived earlier (before 1997), there is no evidence to suggest that the changing cohort quality had any significant effect on overall income inequality.

Exodus from Hunger: The Long-Term Health Consequences of the 1959–1961 Chinese Famine

Abstract This article examines the long-term health consequences of China’s 1959–1961 famine by comparing people who stayed in Guangdong and endured the famine with people who crossed the border to immigrate to Hong Kong and thus escaped the famine. Based on data from the Hong Kong Panel Study of Social Dynamics (HKPSSD) and the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS), we focused on two health indicators—body mass index (BMI) and self-rated health (SRH)—of the cohort born before 1959. Our results show that the stayers who experienced the famine have a lower BMI than the emigrants, and they are likely to have a poor SRH. The difference-in-differences (DID) estimates further show that the famine exposure reduced the odds of giving higher ratings of SRH by 60 and 42 percent, respectively, for the 1923–1940 and 1941–1958 birth cohorts. For the 1923–1940 cohort, famine exposure also reduced their BMI by 1.5 points.

Parenting Discrepancy and Child Development in Chinese Context

Abstract Although parent–child discrepant perception of the family has been increasingly noted in the west, pertinent research is limited in Chinese societies. In addition, prior pertinent studies predominantly treated parent–child discrepant effects as independent of the general and aggregate family context, which are in fact inseparable. Furthermore, these studies tended to either look at the positive side of child outcomes or those negative ones. The present study, based on a community sample of 223 Chinese parent–child dyads, attempted to examine effects of parent–child discrepancy in effective parenting practices on both children’s positive, i.e. self-control and other perspective taking behavior, and negative outcomes, i.e. internalizing and externalizing problems, directly or indirectly through the mediator of children’s self-concept at the aggregate effective parenting context. Results largely support harmful effects of parent–child discrepancy in effective parenting on the child outcomes directly or indirectly through children’s self-concept. Besides, aggregate effective parenting practices are found to robustly contribute to the child outcomes directly and indirectly through children’s self-concept, even taking parent–child discrepant effects into account. What’s more important, the former is significantly moderated by the latter for its effects on the child outcomes, explicating the conditional nature of parent–child discrepant effects on child development. Contributions and implications of the current study applied in Chinese culture as well as future study directions are also discussed.

Mode of Migration, Age at Arrival, and Occupational Attainment of Immigrants from Mainland China to Hong Kong

Abstract This paper examines occupational attainment of Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong by comparing immigrants from Guangdong province with people who stayed in Guangdong and Hong Kong natives. Taking advantage of comparable data from the Hong Kong Panel Study of Social Dynamics (HKPSSD) and the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS), we find that Chinese immigrants have significantly lower occupational attainment, measured by International Socioeconomic Index (ISEI), than their counterparts in both the origin and the destination. We further examine whether immigrants’ occupational attainment differs by mode of migration and age at arrival. Results show that disadvantages exist for documented immigrants and those who arrived in Hong Kong at age 13 or older, whereas undocumented immigrants and those who arrived younger than 13 do not differ significantly from either Guangdong stayers or Hong Kong natives.

Rural to urban migration and distributive justice in contemporary China

This paper examines perceptions of micro justice and macro justice in contemporary China, focusing on comparisons among rural–urban migrants, urban locals and rural villagers. It puts forward three possibilities concerning distributive justice among rural–urban migrants relative to other groups, based on the social position hypothesis, reference group hypothesis, and subjective mobility hypothesis. Data from the 2010 Chinese General Social Survey largely support the reference group hypothesis. Rural–urban migrants are significantly more likely than urban locals to view their income level and society as fair, and the difference in perceived fairness of own income between the two groups varies by income level. Rural villagers and rural–urban migrants hold similar views on micro justice and macro justice. This paper contributes to the existing literature by suggesting that: (1) socio-economic status is not necessarily positively associated with favorable views of the current distributive system; and (2) social comparisons may play a more important role.

The growth of Chinese professionals: a new middle class in the making

This chapter describes the growth of professional workers in the context of the expanding higher education system and the improving economic structure in China, especially since the late 1990s. Based on the analyses of data from the census/mini-census supplemented by the 2010 Chinese General Social Survey, the chapter illustrates the demographic profiles, socioeconomic positions, and political orientations and participation of Chinese professionals and compares them with managers, as the two groups form a major part of the emerging new middle classes in China.