Zoë D. Peterson

What Is Sex and Why Does It Matter? A Motivational Approach to Exploring Individuals' Definitions of Sex

What sexual experiences qualify as “having sex”? We investigated two assumptions apparently underlying research on how individuals make these judgments: that individuals have clear definitions regarding what qualifies as sex and that these judgments depend on how closely the activity being assessed matches their definitions of sex. Using open-ended questionnaires, 100 students, 51 women and 49 men, described their experiences that were “almost but not quite sex” or “just barely sex” and situations where there was uncertainty or disagreement about whether the experience qualified as “sex.” In contrast to the above assumptions, many respondents expressed ambiguity about their definitions of sex, and their decisions about labeling an experience as “sex” often seemed influenced by the consequences of applying this label.

Prevalence and consequences of adult sexual assault of men: Review of empirical findings and state of the literature

Male victims of adult sexual assault (ASA) are understudied as compared with female victims. Further, commonly-held myths about sexual assault suggest that men cannot be victims or that, if men are victims, they are relatively physically and emotionally unharmed by sexual assault. The goal of this paper was to systematically review the empirical literature on ASA among men to evaluate the veracity of these myths. This paper also sought to examine the methodological quality of the body of research in this area, identify limitations and gaps in the current literature, and suggest directions for future research. Eighty-seven relevant studies were identified through a systematic review of the literature. The reported prevalence of mens sexual aggression varied widely depending on the methods used and the population studied; some populations (e.g., veterans, prison inmates, and gay and bisexual men) reported higher rates of ASA than men in the general population. Few studies have systematically examined the consequences of male ASA; however, those that have suggest that ASA can have notable adverse physical and psychological consequences for some men.

Gender Differences in Heterosexual College Students' Conceptualizations and Indicators of Sexual Consent: Implications for Contemporary Sexual Assault Prevention Education

Because sexual assault is often defined in terms of nonconsent, many prevention efforts focus on promoting the clear communication of consent as a mechanism to reduce assault. Yet little research has specifically examined how sexual consent is being conceptualized by heterosexual college students. In this study, 185 Midwestern U.S. college students provided responses to open-ended questions addressing how they define, communicate, and interpret sexual consent and nonconsent. The study aimed to assess how college students define and communicate consent, with particular attention to gender differences in consent. Results indicated no gender differences in defining consent. However, there were significant differences in how men and women indicated their own consent and nonconsent, with women reporting more verbal strategies than men and men reporting more nonverbal strategies than women, and in how they interpreted their partners consent and nonconsent, with men relying more on nonverbal indicators of consent than women. Such gender differences may help to explain some misunderstandings or misinterpretations of consent or agreement to engage in sexual activity, which could partially contribute to the occurrence of acquaintance rape; thus, a better understanding of consent has important implications for developing sexual assault prevention initiatives.

The Complexities of Sexual Consent Among College Students: A Conceptual and Empirical Review

Headlines publicize controversies about sexual assault among college students, and universities face pressure to revise their sexual consent policies. What can the social science literature contribute to this discussion? In this article, we briefly discuss reasons for the recent upsurge in attention to these issues, the prevalence of sexual assault among college students, and aspects of college life that increase the risk of sexual assault and complicate sexual consent. We then review the conceptual challenges of defining sexual consent and the empirical research on how young people navigate sexual consent in their daily lives, focusing primarily on studies of U.S. and Canadian students. Integrating these conceptual issues and research findings, we discuss implications for consent policies, and we present five principles that could be useful for thinking about consent. Finally, we discuss some of the limitations of the existing research and suggest directions for future research.

The Association Between Sexual Aggression and HIV Risk Behavior in Heterosexual Men

Perpetrating sexual coercion and rape can be conceptualized as a form of sexual risk taking. In this study, the authors evaluated the relationship between sexual aggression and other risky sexual behaviors (e.g., intercourse without a condom) using an online convenience sample of 1,240 heterosexual men. Sexually aggressive men engaged in more sexual risk taking (i.e., sex with multiple partners, unprotected sex, and one-night stands) than nonaggressive men, and almost half of the reported incidents of sexual aggression were unprotected (i.e., no condom was worn). Thus, sexual aggression was found to be part of a larger pattern of sexual risk taking. Regression analyses revealed that sexual aggression was associated with greater alcohol use and lower sexual inhibition—two variables that have consistently been found to be related to other forms of sexual risk taking.

Investigating the Impact of Inquiry Mode on Self-Reported Sexual Behavior: Theoretical Considerations and Review of the Literature

Measurement of sexual behaviors is typically reliant on retrospective self-reports of behaviors. Historically, self-reported sexual behavior data were primarily collected through face-to-face interviews or paper-and-pencil questionnaires, as these were the only modes of inquiry available. In recent decades, technological innovations such as telephones, computers, and the Internet have expanded the self-report inquiry modes available. The addition of these new inquiry modes further complicates the ability of sex researchers to evaluate the quality of research results and compare findings across studies. Self-report sexual behavior data are vulnerable to participation biases, as well as to sources of bias in individual responses, such as recollection and social desirability bias. This is true regardless of the inquiry mode being used, but some modes may be more vulnerable to bias than others. This review examines the available research regarding self-report sexual behavior research, inquiry mode, and relative bias across modes. The review also provides recommendations for advancing the current understanding of inquiry mode effects within sexual behavior research. Specifically, by shifting the focus away from evaluating specific modes of inquiry toward examination of factors common across all modes, researchers will be better able to interpret existing research and improve the designs of future studies as well.

A Match-and-Motivation Model of How Women Label Their Nonconsensual Sexual Experiences

Many rape victims are unacknowledged rape victims—they report an experience meeting researchers’ operational definitions of rape but do not label their experience as rape. The purpose of this study was to investigate women’s decisions about whether to label their experiences as rape. Participants were 77 college women (predominantly White; mean age = 19.23) who had experienced rape according to the study’s operational definition. The researchers used open-ended questionnaires and interviews to explore participants’ explanations for labeling or not labeling their experience as rape. Explanations were related to match—whether the incident matched their rape script (e.g., whether the man fit their image of a rapist; whether they fought back)—and to motivation—the perceived consequences of using the label (e.g., discomfort with thinking of the perpetrator as a rapist; feeling less self-blame vs. feeling less control or more traumatized). Over time, participants were more likely to label their experience as rape. Results suggested that individuals differ in the meanings that they ascribe to the label rape. For some individuals, labeling their experience as rape may be adaptive; for others, it may be unhelpful or even harmful. Researchers, clinicians, and advocates should use caution in imposing their own preferred labels on other women’s experiences.

Evaluating the One-in-Five Statistic: Women’s Risk of Sexual Assault While in College

In 2014, U.S. president Barack Obama announced a White House Task Force to Protect Students From Sexual Assault, noting that “1 in 5 women on college campuses has been sexually assaulted during their time there.” Since then, this one-in-five statistic has permeated public discourse. It is frequently reported, but some commentators have criticized it as exaggerated. Here, we address the question, “What percentage of women are sexually assaulted while in college?” After discussing definitions of sexual assault, we systematically review available data, focusing on studies that used large, representative samples of female undergraduates and multiple behaviorally specific questions. We conclude that one in five is a reasonably accurate average across women and campuses. We also review studies that are inappropriately cited as either supporting or debunking the one-in-five statistic; we explain why they do not adequately address this question. We identify and evaluate several assumptions implicit in the public discourse (e.g., the assumption that college students are at greater risk than nonstudents). Given the empirical support for the one-in-five statistic, we suggest that the controversy occurs because of misunderstandings about studies’ methods and results and because this topic has implications for gender relations, power, and sexuality; this controversy is ultimately about values.

Discrepant Responding across Self-Report Measures of Men's Coercive and Aggressive Sexual Strategies

Researchers have worked to refine the measurement of womens experiences with sexual victimization. Less is known about the validity and reliability of measures that assess mens use of sexual coercion and aggression. These studies explore the consistency of mens responses to two distinct, but similar, measures of sexual coercion and aggression. The two measures both assess historical use of verbal coercion, sexual assault involving drugs or alcohol, and sexual assault through threat or force. Study 1 used college men as participants (N = 398), whereas Study 2 used a mixed sample of college and community men (N = 184). In both studies, participants’ responses were largely inconsistent across the two measures. This article explores potential measurement issues that may account for the observed reporting discrepancies and offers suggestions for future research.

Sexual Functioning Following Elective Hysterectomy: The Role of Surgical and Psychosocial Variables

In this article, two studies were conducted to investigate the surgical and psychosocial correlates of womens post-hysterectomy sexual functioning. In Study 1, sexual functioning was measured in an online convenience sample of 65 women who had undergone elective hysterectomy. Results suggested that most women experienced improved sexual functioning after their hysterectomy. Women who underwent hysterectomy to treat endometriosis reported less improvement in sexual functioning as compared to women who had hysterectomies for other indications, and women who had abdominal hysterectomies reported less improvement in sexual functioning as compared to women who had vaginal hysterectomies. Sexual functioning post-hysterectomy was associated with psychosocial variables, particularly body esteem and relationship quality. In Study 2, sexual functioning was investigated at two time points three to five months apart in a sample of 14 women who reported developing sexual problems following their elective hysterectomies. Results suggested that, among women suffering from post-hysterectomy sexual dysfunction, sexual pain and difficulty with orgasm increased over time.