Zun-Ji Ke

The Role of Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β in the Transformation of Epidermal Cells

Glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3beta) is a multifunctional serine/threonine kinase. We showed that the expression of GSK3beta was drastically down-regulated in human cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas and basal cell carcinomas. Due to its negative regulation of many oncogenic proteins, we hypothesized that GSK3beta may function as a tumor suppressor during the neoplastic transformation of epidermal cells. We tested this hypothesis using an in vitro model system, JB6 mouse epidermal cells. In response to epidermal growth factor (EGF) or 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), the promotion-sensitive JB6 P+ cells initiate neoplastic transformation, whereas the promotion-resistant JB6 P- cells do not. JB6 P- cells expressed much higher levels of GSK3beta than JB6 P+ cells; JB7 cells, the transformed derivatives of JB6, had the least amount of GSK3beta. The activity of GSK3beta is negatively regulated by its phosphorylation at Ser9. EGF and TPA induced strong Ser9 phoshorylation in JB6 P+ cells, but phosphorylation was seen at a much lesser extent in JB6 P- cells. EGF and TPA-stimulated Ser9 phosphorylation was mediated by phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and protein kinase C (PKC) pathways. Inhibition of GSK3beta activation significantly stimulated activator protein-1 (AP-1) activity. Overexpression of wild-type (WT) and S9A mutant GSK3beta in JB6 P+ cells suppressed EGF and TPA-mediated anchorage-independent growth in soft agar and tumorigenicity in nude mice. Overexpression of a kinase-deficient (K85R) GSK3beta, in contrast, potentiated anchorage-independent growth and drastically enhanced in vivo tumorigenicity. Together, these results indicate that GSK3beta plays an important role in skin tumorigenesis.

Neuronal MCP-1 Mediates Microglia Recruitment and Neurodegeneration Induced by the Mild Impairment of Oxidative Metabolism

Chemokines are implicated in the neuroinflammation of several chronic neurodegenerative disorders. However, the precise role of chemokines in neurodegeneration is unknown. Thiamine deficiency (TD) causes abnormal oxidative metabolism in the brain as well as a well‐defined microglia activation and neurodegeneration in the submedial thalamus nucleus (SmTN), which are common features of neurodegenerative diseases. We evaluated the role of chemokines in neurodegeneration and the underlying mechanism in a TD model. Among the chemokines examined, TD selectively induced neuronal expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein‐1 (MCP‐1) in the SmTN prior to microglia activation and neurodegeneration. The conditioned medium collected from TD‐induced neurons caused microglia activation. With a neuron/microglia co‐culture system, we showed that MCP‐1‐induced neurotoxicity required the presence of microglia, and exogenous MCP‐1 was able to activate microglia and stimulated microglia to produce cytokines. A MCP‐1 neutralizing antibody inhibited MCP‐1‐induced microglia activation and neuronal death in culture and in the thalamus. MCP‐1 knockout mice were resistant to TD‐induced neuronal death in SmTN. TD selectively induced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species in neurons, and antioxidants blocked TD‐induced MCP‐1 expression. Together, our results indicated an induction of neuronal MCP‐1 during mild impairment of oxidative metabolism caused by microglia recruitment/activation, which exacerbated neurodegeneration.

Thiamine deficiency induces endoplasmic reticulum stress in neurons.

Thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency (TD) causes region selective neuronal loss in the brain; it has been used to model neurodegeneration that accompanies mild impairment of oxidative metabolism. The mechanisms for TD-induced neurodegeneration remain incompletely elucidated. Inhibition of protein glycosylation, perturbation of calcium homeostasis and reduction of disulfide bonds provoke the accumulation of unfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and cause ER stress. Recently, ER stress has been implicated in a number of neurodegenerative models. We demonstrated here that TD up-regulated several markers of ER stress, such as glucose-regulated protein (GRP) 78, growth arrest and DNA-damage inducible protein or C/EBP-homologus protein (GADD153/Chop), phosphorylation of eIF2alpha and cleavage of caspase-12 in the cerebellum and the thalamus of mice. Furthermore, ultrastructural analysis by electron microscopic study revealed an abnormality in ER structure. To establish an in vitro model of TD in neurons, we treated cultured cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs) with amprolium, a potent inhibitor of thiamine transport. Exposure to amprolium caused apoptosis and the generation of reactive oxygen species in CGNs. Similar to the observation in vivo, TD up-regulated markers for ER stress. Treatment of a selective inhibitor of caspase-12 significantly alleviated amprolium-induced death of CGNs. Thus, ER stress may play a role in TD-induced brain damage.

Selective response of various brain cell types during neurodegeneration induced by mild impairment of oxidative metabolism

Age-related neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by selective neuron loss, glial activation, inflammation and abnormalities in oxidative metabolism. Thiamine deficiency (TD) is a model of neurodegeneration induced by impairment of oxidative metabolism. TD produces a time-dependent, selective neuronal death in specific brain regions, while other cell types are either activated or unaffected. TD-induced neurodegeneration occurs first in a small, well-defined brain region, the submedial thalamic nucleus (SmTN). This discrete localization permits careful analysis of the relationship between neuronal loss and the response of other cell types. The temporal analysis of the changes in the region in combination with the use of transgenic mice permits testing of proposed mechanisms of how the interaction of neurons with other cell types produces neurodegeneration. Loss of neurons and elevation in markers of neurodegeneration are accompanied by changes in microglia including increased redox active iron, the induction of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and hemeoxygenase-1, a marker of oxidative stress. Endothelial cells also show changes in early stages of TD including induction of intracellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) and endothelial NOS. The number of degranulating mast cells also increases in early stages of TD. Alterations in astrocytes and neutrophils occur at later stages of TD. Studies with transgenic knockouts indicate that the endothelial cell changes are particularly important. We hypothesize that TD-induced abnormalities in oxidative metabolism promote release of neuronal inflammatory signals that activate microglia, astrocytes and endothelial cells. Although at early stages the responses of non-neuronal cells may be neuroprotective, at late phases they lead to entry of peripheral inflammatory cells into the brain and promote neurodegeneration.

Ethanol Promotes Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress-Induced Neuronal Death: Involvement of Oxidative Stress

One of the most devastating effects of ethanol exposure during development is the loss of neurons in selected brain areas. The underlying cellular/molecular mechanisms remain unclear. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved in posttranslational protein processing and transport. The accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the ER lumen triggers ER stress, which is characterized by translational attenuation, synthesis of ER chaperone proteins such as GRP78, and activation of transcription factors such as ATF4, ATF6, and CHOP. Sustained ER stress ultimately leads to cell death. ER stress response can be induced experimentally by treatment with tunicamycin and thapsigargin. Using SH‐SY5Y neuroblastoma cells and primary cerebellar granule neurons as in vitro models, we demonstrated that exposure to ethanol alone had little effect on the expression of markers for ER stress; however, ethanol drastically enhanced the expression of GRP78, CHOP, ATF4, ATF6, and phosphorylated PERK and eIF2α when induced by tunicamycin and thapsigargin. Consistently, ethanol promoted tunicamycin‐ and thapsigargin‐induced cell death. Ethanol rapidly caused oxidative stress in cultured neuronal cells; antioxidants blocked ethanols potentiation of ER stress and cell death, suggesting that the ethanol‐promoted ER stress response is mediated by oxidative stress. CHOP is a proapoptotic transcription factor. We further demonstrated that CHOP played an important role in ethanol‐promoted cell death. Thus, the effect of ethanol may be mediated by the interaction between oxidative stress and ER stress.

NADPH Oxidase Activation Is Required in Reactive Oxygen Species Generation and Cell Transformation Induced by Hexavalent Chromium

Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is a well-known human carcinogen associated with the incidence of lung cancer. Although overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been suggested to play a major role in its carcinogenicity, the mechanisms of Cr(VI)-induced ROS production remain unclear. In this study, we investigated the role of NADPH oxidase (NOX), one of the major sources of cellular ROS, in Cr(VI)-induced oxidative stress and carcinogenesis. We found that short-term exposure to Cr(VI) (2μM) resulted in a rapid increase in ROS generation in Beas-2B cells, and concomitantly increased NOX activity and expression of NOX members (NOX1-3 and NOX5) and subunits (p22(phox), p47(phox), p40(phox), and p67(phox)). Cr(VI) also induced phosphorylation of p47(phox) and membrane translocation of p47(phox) and p67(phox), further confirming NOX activation. Knockdown of p47(phox) with a short hairpin RNA attenuated the ROS production induced by Cr(VI). Chronic exposure (up to 3 months) to low doses of Cr(VI) (0.125, 0.25, and 0.5μM) also promoted ROS generation and the expression of NOX subunits, such as p47(phox) and p67(phox), but inhibited the expression of main antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxidase dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). Chronic Cr(VI) exposure resulted in transformation of Beas-2B cells, increasing cell proliferation, anchorage independent growth in soft agar, and forming aggressive tumors in nude mice. Stable knockdown of p47(phox) or overexpression of SOD1, SOD2, or catalase (CAT) eliminated Cr(VI)-induced malignant transformation. Our results suggest that NOX plays an important role in Cr(VI)-induced ROS generation and carcinogenesis.

MMP-2 mediates ethanol-induced invasion of mammary epithelial cells over-expressing ErbB2

Ethanol is a tumor promoter and may enhance the metastasis of breast cancer. We have previously demonstrated that over‐expression of ErbB2 promoted ethanol‐mediated invasion of mammary epithelial cells and breast cancer cells. However, the underlying cellular/molecular mechanisms remain unknown. By gelatin zymography, we showed that over‐expression of ErbB2 increased the production of matrix metalloproteinase‐2 (MMP‐2) and MMP‐9 in human mammary epithelial cells (HB2). Transient or stable transfection of ErbB2 cDNA to HB2 cells upregulated the transcripts and the activity of the MMP‐2/‐9 gene promoter; the upregulation of MMP‐2/‐9 expression was mediated by p38 mitogen‐activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase (PI3K). Although ethanol, at physiologically relevant concentrations (100–400 mg/dl), did not affect the production of MMP‐2/‐9, it activated MMP‐2 in HB2 cells over‐expressing ErbB2 (HB2ErbB2), but not HB2 cells; it enhanced the cleavage of proform MMP‐2 (72 kDa) to an active form (62 kDa). The activation was dependent on c‐jun N‐terminal kinases (JNKs) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). On the other hand, ethanol affected neither the expression nor the activation of MMP‐9. Selective inhibitors of MMP‐2 (SB‐3CT and OA‐Hy) and antioxidants significantly inhibited ethanol‐stimulated invasion of HB2ErbB2 cells. Furthermore, knocking down MMP‐2 by small interference RNA also induced a partial blockage on ethanol‐promoted invasion of HB2ErbB2 cells. Thus, ethanol‐stimulated invasion of cells over‐expressing ErbB2 was mediated, at least partially, by MMP‐2 activation.

Arsenic inhibits neurite outgrowth by inhibiting the LKB1-AMPK signaling pathway.

Background Arsenic (As) is an environmental pollutant that induces numerous pathological effects, including neurodevelopmental disorders. Objectives and Methods We evaluated the role of the LKB1–AMPK pathway in As-induced developmental neurotoxicity using Neuro-2a (N2a) neuroblastoma cells as a model of developing neurons. Results The addition of low concentrations of As (≤ 5 μM) during differentiation caused an inhibitory effect on the neurite outgrowth in N2a cells in the absence of cell death. Activation of adenosine monophosphate–activated kinase (AMPK) induced by retinoic acid in differentiating cells was blocked by As. Pretreatment with the AMPK-specific activator 5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide riboside or overexpression of a constitutively active AMPK-α1 plasmid reversed As-induced inhibition of neurite outgrowth. The activation of LKB1 (serine/threonine kinase 11), a major AMPK kinase, was also suppressed by As by inhibiting both the phosphorylation and the translocation of LKB1 from nucleus to cytoplasm. Antioxidants, such as N-acetyl cysteine and superoxide dismutase, but not catalase, protected against As-induced inactivation of the LKB1–AMPK pathway and reversed the inhibitory effect of As on neurite outgrowth. Conclusions Reduced neurite outgrowth induced by As results from deficient activation of AMPK as a consequence of a lack of activation of LKB1. Oxidative stress induced by As, especially excessive superoxide, plays a critical role in blocking the LKB1–AMPK pathway. Our studies provide insight into the mechanisms underlying As-induced developmental neurotoxicity, which is important for designing a new strategy for protecting children against this neurotoxic substance.

Cyanidin-3-Glucoside inhibits ethanol-induced invasion of breast cancer cells overexpressing ErbB2

BackgroundEthanol is a tumor promoter. Both epidemiological and experimental studies suggest that ethanol may enhance the metastasis of breast cancer cells. We have previously demonstrated that ethanol increased the migration/invasion of breast cancer cells expressing high levels of ErbB2. Amplification of ErbB2 is found in 20-30% of breast cancer patients and is associated with poor prognosis. We sought to identify agents that can prevent or ameliorate ethanol-induced invasion of breast cancer cells. Cyanidin-3-glucoside (C3G), an anthocyanin present in many vegetables and fruits, is a potent natural antioxidant. Ethanol exposure causes the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). This study evaluated the effect of C3G on ethanol-induced breast cancer cell migration/invasion.ResultsC3G attenuated ethanol-induced migration/invasion of breast cancer cells expressing high levels of ErbB2 (BT474, MDA-MB231 and MCF7ErbB2) in a concentration dependent manner. C3G decreased ethanol-mediated cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM) as well as the amount of focal adhesions and the formation of lamellipodial protrusion. It inhibited ethanol-stimulated phosphorylation of ErbB2, cSrc, FAK and p130Cas, as well as interactions among these proteins. C3G abolished ethanol-mediated p130Cas/JNK interaction.ConclusionsC3G blocks ethanol-induced activation of the ErbB2/cSrc/FAK pathway which is necessary for cell migration/invasion. C3G may be beneficial in preventing/reducing ethanol-induced breast cancer metastasis.

Tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes following thiamine deficiency

Thiamine (Vitamin B1) deficiency (TD) leads to memory deficits and neurological disease in animals and humans. The thiamine-dependent enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle are reduced following TD and in the brains of patients that died from multiple neurodegenerative diseases. Whether reductions in thiamine or thiamine-dependent enzymes leads to changes in all TCA cycle enzymes has never been tested. In the current studies, the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC) and all of enzymes of the TCA cycle were measured in the brains of TD mice. Non-thiamine-dependent enzymes such as succinate dehydrogenase (SDH), succinate thiokinase (STH) and malate dehydrogenase (MDH) were altered as much or more than thiamine-dependent enzymes such as the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex (KGDHC) (-21.5%) and PDHC (-10.5%). Succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity decreased by 27% and succinate thiokinase (STH) decreased by 24%. The reductions in these other enzymes may result from oxidative stress because of TD or because these other enzymes of the TCA cycle are part of a metabolon that respond as a group of enzymes. The results suggest that other TCA cycle enzymes should be measured in brains from patients that died from neurological disease in which thiamine-dependent enzymes are known to be reduced. The diminished activities of multiple TCA cycle enzymes may be important in our understanding of how metabolic lesions alter brain function in neurodegenerative disorders.