A.F. Moene

Estimation of sensible heat flux using the Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) and ATSR measurements

This paper describes a modified version of the Surface Energy Balance System (SEBS) as regards the use of radiometric data from space and presents the results of a large area validation study on estimated sensible heat flux, extended over several months. The improvements were made possible by the characteristics of the Along Track Scanning Radiometer (ATSR-2) on board the European Remote Sensing satellite (ERS-2) and relate to: (a) the use of bi-angular radiometric data in two thermal infrared channels to estimate column atmospheric water vapor: (b) the use of bi-angular radiometric data in four spectral channels in the 550-1600 nm spectral regions to estimate aerosols optical depth: (c) determination of bottom of atmosphere (BOA) spectral reflectance using column water vapor, aerosols optical depth and a two-stream radiative transfer scheme to relate BOA spectral reflectance to top of atmosphere spectral radiance (d) direct and inverse modeling of radiative transfer in a vegetation canopy to relate BOA spectral reflectance to canopy properties, such as spectrally integrated hemispherical reflectance (albedo). A parameterization of the aerodynamic resistance for heat transfer (in term of kB(-1)) was applied for the first time at large spatial scales. For such large area analyses SEBS requires wind speed, potential temperature and humidity of air at an appropriate reference height. The latter was taken as being the height of the planetary boundary layer (PBL) and the data used were fields generated by an advanced numerical weather prediction model, i.e. regional atmospheric climate model (RACMO), integrated over the PBL. Validation of estimated sensible heat flux H obtained with the ATSR radiometric data was done using long-range, line-averaged measurements of H done with large aperture scintillometers (LAS) located at three sites in Spain and operated continuously between April and September 1999. The root mean square deviation of SEBS H estimates from LAS H measurements was 25.5 W m(-2)

Intermittent Turbulence in the Stable Boundary Layer over Land. Part III: A Classification for Observations during CASES-99

Abstract In this paper a classification of stable boundary layer regimes is presented based on observations of near-surface turbulence during the Cooperative Atmosphere–Surface Exchange Study-1999 (CASES-99). It is found that the different nights can be divided into three subclasses: a turbulent regime, an intermittent regime, and a radiative regime, which confirms the findings of two companion papers that use a simplified theoretical model (it is noted that its simpliflied structure limits the model generality to near-surface flows). The papers predict the occurrence of stable boundary layer regimes in terms of external forcing parameters such as the (effective) pressure gradient and radiative forcing. The classification in the present work supports these predictions and shows that the predictions are robust in a qualitative sense. As such, it is, for example, shown that intermittent turbulence is most likely to occur in clear-sky conditions with a moderately weak effective pressure gradient. The quantit...

Evapotranspiration fluxes over mixed vegetation areas measured from large aperture scintillometer

Routine measurement of spatially averaged surface fluxes of sensible heat (H) in river basins is now feasible. These fluxes, when combined with net radiation estimates, can be used to derive areally averaged actual evapotranspiration (ET). The scintillation method is shown to be promising method for estimating areally averaged sensible heat fluxes. The large aperture scintillometer (LAS) is an optical device used to monitor fluctuations in refractive index of the turbulent atmosphere over a relatively large area. The study reported here has estimated ET fluxes for an area of mixed vegetation at Horana, a field site about 40 km southeast of Colombo, Sri Lanka. ET estimates derived from the scintillometer and net radiometer were compared with estimates obtained from a remote sensing based surface energy balance algorithm for land (SEBAL). The SEBAL estimating of ET were derived using NOAA satellite images without any a priori calibration. The average deviation of ET estimates between SEBAL and LAS for 10-day periods was 17%. However, this deviation fell to 1% when monthly estimates were considered. This suggests regional ET values derived from remote sensing are reasonable estimates, however, the LAS was used in only one agro-ecosystem to validate the SEBAL model. The LAS is a low cost alternative to other methods of estimating heat fluxes for use in basin scale water use studies.

A conceptual view on inertial oscillations and nocturnal low-level jets

In the present work Blackadar’s concept of nocturnal inertial oscillations is extended. Blackadar’s concept describes frictionless inertial oscillations above the nocturnal inversion layer. The current work includes frictional effects within the nocturnal boundary layer. It is shown that the nocturnal wind speed profile describes an oscillation around the nocturnal equilibrium wind vector, rather than around the geostrophic wind vector (as in the Blackadar case). By using this perspective, continuous time-dependent wind profiles are predicted. As such, information on both the height and the magnitude of the nocturnal low-level jet is available as a function of time. Preliminary analysis shows that the proposed extension performs well in comparison with observations when a simple Ekman model is used to represent the equilibrium state in combination with a realistic initial velocity profile. In addition to jet dynamics, backward inertial oscillations are predicted at lower levels close to the surface, which also appear to be present in observations. The backward oscillation forms an important mechanism behind weakening low-level winds during the afternoon transition. Both observational and theoretical modeling studies are needed to explore this phenomenon further.

Intermittent Turbulence and Oscillations in the Stable Boundary Layer over Land. Part I: A Bulk Model

In the stable boundary layer (SBL) it is observed often that turbulence is not continuous in space and time. This discontinuous, intermittent turbulence causes alternations from the mean evolution of the stratified atmospheric boundary layer, which may result in an oscillatory type of behavior of the near-surface wind speed and temperature. It is well known that intermittent turbulence in the SBL can be generated by various mechanisms. This paper focuses on an intermittency generating mechanism that arises from a direct interaction of the lower atmosphere (first tens of meters) with the vegetation surface, without interaction with the air aloft. It is shown that the essence of this mechanism can be captured by a 1D bulk model of three coupled nonlinear differential equations. In the present paper, numerical runs with the model show that intermittent turbulence is most likely to occur over land surfaces with low vegetation during clear-sky conditions in the presence of a moderate to low synoptical pressure gradient. The existence of a vegetation layer has a strong influence on intermittency dynamics. Due to its small heat capacity, the vegetation temperature is able to quickly respond to rapidly changing conditions. This in turn affects the stability of the lower atmosphere, causing an important feedback mechanism. In addition, it was found that intermittent behavior of SBL models occurs for various first-order closure schemes with different stability functions. However, stability functions that allow turbulent transport beyond the critical Richardson number effectively suppress intermittent‐oscillatory behavior. Currently, the latter type of formulations is often used in numerical weather prediction to prevent excessive SBL cooling in very stable conditions. The advantage of using a simplified SBL model, as proposed in the present paper, is that it allows an analytical study of the system, which, in turn, allows theoretical predictions about the occurrence of intermittent SBL behavior (see the companion paper).

The Minimum Wind Speed for Sustainable Turbulence in the Nocturnal Boundary Layer

The collapse of turbulence in the nocturnal boundary layer is studied by means of a simple bulk model that describes the basic physical interactions in the surface energy balance. It is shown that for a given mechanical forcing, the amount of turbulent heat that can be transported downward is limited to a certain maximum. In the case of weak winds and clear skies, this maximum can be significantly smaller than the net radiative loss minus soil heat transport. In the case when the surface has low heat capacity, this imbalance generates rapid surface cooling that further suppresses the turbulent heat transport, so that eventually turbulence largely ceases (positive feedback mechanism). The model predicts the minimum wind speed for sustainable turbulence for the so-called crossing level. At this level, some decameters above the surface, the wind is relatively stationary compared to lower and higher levels. The critical speed is predicted in the range of about 5–7 m s21, depending on radiative forcing and surface properties, and is in agreement with observations at Cabauw. The critical value appears not very sensitive to model details or to the exact values of the input parameters. Finally, results are interpreted in terms of external forcings, such as geostrophic wind. As it is generally larger than the speed at crossing height, a 5 m s21 geostrophic wind may be considered as the typical limit below which sustainable, continuous turbulence under clear-sky conditions is unlikely to exist. Below this threshold emergence of the very stable nocturnal boundary layer is anticipated.

Effects of water vapour on the structure parameter of the refractive index for near-infrared radiation

AbstractThe refractive index of air (n) mainly depends on temperature andwater vapour content. For near-infrared radiation, temperature isthe main determining factor. To determinethe structure parameter of temperature (

The Cessation of Continuous Turbulence as Precursor of the Very Stable Nocturnal Boundary Layer

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