A. K. Dhawan

Integrated Pest Management: Innovation-Development Process

World-wide, integrated pest management (IPM) has become the accepted strategy for plant protection over the last five decades. Cotton growers in the Canete valley, Peru were amongst the first to adopt a combination of pest management practices to save the cotton crop from the ravages caused by pests despite applying 16 insecticide sprays on average. However, it was not until 1959, that the concept of “integrated management” was born in the United States of America (USA). A panel of experts from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) put the concept of IPM in operation in 1968. Advancements made in IPM systems for developing sustainable pest management strategies in the USA, Europe, Australia, Asia, Latin America and Africa have not generally resulted in wider adoption of IPM, though there have been some successes. Pesticides remain the main-stay of many IPM programs throughout the globe. In the USA and Europe, there is government legislation and mechanisms for implementation and evaluation of IPM programs, especially in Europe, where IPM innovation systems involving the government, researchers, farmers, advisory agencies and market forces are part of a system to reduce pesticide use. In the developing countries farmer education in IPM has gained impetus since 1989, through the Farmer Field School (FFS) extension methodology, originally developed for educating farmers in rice IPM. The FFS model of extension has spread from Asia to Latin America, Africa and Eastern Europe. In the developed countries the systematic periodic evaluation of IPM programs provides feedback for improving and formulating future strategies, but in many developing countries there is no periodic evaluation of IPM programs for assessing the extent of adoption and long term impact. This chapter provides a broad overview of IPM programs, policies and adoption of IPM practices in the North America, Europe, Australia, Asia, Latin America and Africa.

Integrated Pest Management: Dissemination and Impact

The cultivation of transgenic pest-resistant cropsmay reduce pesticide application, improve production and increase economic benefit. Breeding and planting transgenic pest-resistant crops is expected to be a promising way to control pests. Pest-resistant transgenic researches in China began in the early 1990s. In 1992, China developed the country’s first Bt protein gene (CryIA gene) with the intellectual property right of its own. Up till now, the exogenous genes, such as Bt protein gene, trypsin inhibitor gene (CpTI gene), etc., have been transformed into cotton, and more than 50 commercially approved transgenic cotton varieties were developed. Since the 1970s, with the widely uses of chemical pesticides in cotton production, the pesticide-resistance of cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner)) dramatically enhanced. Cotton acreage in China declined from 6.835 million ha in 1992 to 4.985 million ha in 1993. In subsequent years, cotton bollworm seriously occurred every year. Since 1998 the adoption of insect-resistant varieties has effectively controlled the outbreak of cotton bollworm. Since the late 1990s, the cultivation area of transgenic insect-resistant cotton in China has been rapidly expanding, and its proportion in the total domestic cotton planting area has been increasing year by year. In 1998, transgenic insect-resistant cotton began to be planted in the Yellow River valley, and that year’s acreage reached 240,000ha, only 5.4% of the total cotton planting area; The planting area increased to 647,000ha, 1.2 million ha, 1.933 million ha, 1.867 million ha, 3.067 million ha, and 3.104 million ha in the years 1999–2004, accounting for 17%, 31%, 40%, 45%, 60%, and 50% of the total area, respectively. The planting area of domestic transgenic insect-resistant cotton accounted for 30%, 60%, and 70% in the years 2002–2004. Due to the cultivation of transgenic insect-resistant cotton, pesticide application in China reduced by 123,000 t and cotton yield increased by 9.6% during the three years 1999–2001. Currently, almost all of the planted cotton in Hebei, Henan, and Shandong Province is transgenic insect-resistant cotton. In the Yangtze River valley, transgenic insect-resistant hybrid cotton holds the dominant position and its planting W.J. Zhang (B) Research Institute of Entomology, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China e-mail: zhwj@mail.sysu.edu.cn R. Peshin, A.K. Dhawan (eds.), Integrated Pest Management: Dissemination and Impact, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-8990-9 18, ©C Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009 525 526 W.J. Zhang and Y. Pang area has been growing in the past years. So far, the total planting area of transgenic insect-resistant cotton in China has reached 4.667 million ha, with an average income of 2,130∼2,400 RMBYuan/ha. Annual reduction in chemical pesticide application reaches 20,000∼31,000 t, equivalent to 7.5% of China’s annual total production of chemical insecticides. Breeding of transgenic insect-resistant rice in China developed quickly in the past years. To date, CryI, CpTI, and GNA genes, etc., have been transformed into the rice, and some insect-resistant rice varieties (strains) were developed in China. They can be used to suppress rice insect pests such as Chilo suppressalis (Walker), leafrollers, and brown planthopper. Researches showed that the adoption of transgenic insect-resistant rice can reduce 70∼80% of insecticide application and would not affect the rice biodiversity. From recent years’ field trials in Hubei and Fujian, indicated that insecticides were seldom used throughout the growing season and rice yield can increase by 12%. So far, the safety evaluations and experiments on the commercial production of transgenic insect-resistant rice have not yet showed any significant security issues. However, as rice is the main food crop in China, the application for commercialization of transgenic rice has never been approved. In addition to cotton and rice, the insect-resistant transgenics for wheat, soybean, maize, and other crops have being made in China. China has imported some of the transgenic crops and resulted in certain impacts. For example, due to the low production cost and better quality, the transgenic soybean of the United States exhibits the obvious economic advantages. The import of transgenic soybean of the United States resulted in the serious stock of domestic soybean production, and undermined the economic interests of Chinese farmers. So far, the most significant negative impacts for planting transgenic insectresistant crops, in particular cotton, are the outbreak of secondary pests and the impairment of arthropod community, etc. Due to the problems of planting transgenic insect-resistant crops, such as the narrow insect-resistance spectrum, the increased resistance of insect pests to transgenic crops, the possible outbreak of secondary insect pests, and the potential environment and biodiversity risks, it is necessary to follow IPM principles and combine the other control measures. Chinese scientists have summarized the practical problems in planting transgenic insect-resistant crops and explored various IPM measures, such as resistance management, intercropping, seed purifying, protection of natural enemies, etc., to address these problems. The IPM measures have being implemented in China.

Integrated Pest Management: A Global Overview of History, Programs and Adoption

World-wide, integrated pest management (IPM) has become the accepted strategy for plant protection over the last five decades. Cotton growers in the Canete valley, Peru were amongst the first to adopt a combination of pest management practices to save the cotton crop from the ravages caused by pests despite applying 16 insecticide sprays on average. However, it was not until 1959, that the concept of ‘‘integrated management’’ was born in the United States of America (USA). A panel of experts from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) put the concept of IPM in operation in 1968. Advancements made in IPM systems for developing sustainable pest management strategies in the USA, Europe, Australia, Asia, Latin America and Africa have not generally resulted in wider adoption of IPM, though there have been some successes. Pesticides remain the main-stay of many IPM programs throughout the globe. In the USA and Europe, there is government legislation and mechanisms for implementation and evaluation of IPM programs, especially in Europe, where IPM innovation systems involving the government, researchers, farmers, advisory agencies and market forces are part of a system to reduce pesticide use. In the developing countries farmer education in IPM has gained impetus since 1989, through the Farmer Field School (FFS) extension methodology, originally developed for educating farmers in rice IPM. The FFS model of extension has spread from Asia to Latin America, Africa and Eastern Europe. In the developed countries the systematic periodic evaluation of IPM programs provides feedback for improving and formulating future strategies, but in many developing countries there is no periodic evaluation of IPM programs for assessing the extent of adoption and long term impact. This chapter provides a broad overview of IPM programs, policies and adoption of IPM practices in the North America, Europe, Australia, Asia, Latin America and Africa.

Integrated Pest Management: Concept, Opportunities and Challenges

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has a prominent place on the policy agenda. Due to continuing concerns regarding unsustainable trends in pest management, promoting the adoption of IPM has been a priority in developed and developing countries. The history of IPM, however, can be traced back to the late 1800s when ecology was identified as the foundation for scientific plant protection. The priorities in IPM shifted from calendar-based use of insecticides to need base, and thereafter, reduce use of insecticides with safety concerns to environment and human health. The development, validation, and dissemination of site-specific IPM and adoption by farmers are key elements for the success of IPM programs. The IPM means do right thing based on a value-based decision system and use of multiple tactics. Because, information delivery is a key part of IPM, the spread of the internet rapidly has enhanced knowledge transfer and access to options. The knowledge acquisition tools are essential for the successful implementation of IPM. Knowledge and information transfer are key to correct pest management. IPM emphasizes correct decisions based on available information on pest management. Internet-based interactive decision support can play a significant role in developing countries. With new innovations coming fast and increasing awareness of the internet, more farmers are using IPM informatics and decision support systems. Environmental risk in IPM is an important issue. Pesticides will continue to dominate IPM in developing and under-developed countries as the target is to produce more for food security. Environmental quality in pest management will continue the focus on alternatives to pesticides and environmentally-safe tactics. Recent developments have the potential to contribute to greater significance of IPM for sustainable development in agriculture. New technological innovations and new modes of delivery have given a new direction to IPM. Biotechnology, including genetic engineering, offers new tools for reducing dependency on chemical pesticides. New products for biological control are becoming more widely applied, and the agrochemical industry is developing more specific and target products. Participatory approaches for farmer training and awareness rising are increasingly employed to ensure sustainability of pest management practices. Requirements of the food industry regarding pesticide residues have become a major force that encourage adoption of IPM practices, and the rising public demand for food safety and quality is creating niche and market nobreak opportunities for certified products, such as organic foods. Pest and pesticide management problems affect most countries and many externalities are global in scope. IPM is gaining recognition as a global policy issue and there is increased involvement of the relevant stakeholders in the IPM policy debate at both the national and international levels. To develop IPM programs for the 21st century, directional research and extension seems to be needed, as well as the development of new nobreak technology.

Evaluation of the benefits of an insecticide resistance management programme in Punjab in India

In India, many IPM programmes have been implemented, but they have not achieved the desired level of success in reducing insecticide use and increasing adoption of IPM practices. This inter-disciplinary study evaluated an Insecticide Resistance Management-based Integrated Pest Management (IRM-IPM) programme in cotton and compared it with non-IRM production for a range of IPM and economic measures. The IRM-IPM programme has been implemented in 28 districts of 10 states of India since 2002 to help rationalize and reduce the use of insecticides and to overcome the development of resistance in cotton pests, especially Helicoverpa armigera. The IRM-IPM strategy includes applying insecticides only when pests exceed economic threshold levels, using selective insecticides that are compatible with biological control, and rotating between different insecticide classes. The IRM-IPM programme we evaluated resulted in a reduction in insecticide consumption (technical grade material) by 30%, and it reduced the number of sprays by 15%; however, it did not result in a significant change in productivity. The majority of IRM farmers avoided using highly toxic insecticides such as monocrotophos, avoided use of synthetic pyrethroids beyond 140 days after sowing to avoid resurgence of Bemisia tabaci, and rotated the insecticide compounds/groups to delay the development of resistance and ensured effective management of H. armigera. On average, the IRM-IPM programme resulted in a return of US

Evaluation of insecticide resistance management based integrated pest management programme

24.05 ha−1 (at 2005 rates: US

Cyclic-amp control of some oxido-reductases during pine pollen germination and tube growth

1 = 45 Indian rupees), by saving on insecticide costs. While the farmers gained significantly in knowledge of IPM practices, the level of adoption of IPM techniques was low. Further studies based on impact evaluation methodology, employing a with/without and before/after quasi-experimental design, would provide feedback to help in the formulation of future IPM strategies.

Persistence and residual toxicity of some insecticides against Phenacoccus solenopsis on cotton (Gossypium spp).

Insecticide resistance management (IRM) programme was launched in 26 cotton-growing districts of India in 2002 to rationalize the use of pesticides. The IRM strategy is presented within a full Integrated Pest Management (IPM) context with the premise that unless full-fledged efforts to understand all aspects of resistance phenomenon are made, any attempt to implement IPM at field level would not bear results. Unlike earlier IPM programmes, this programme is directly implemented by the scientists of state agricultural universities; thus the information flow is directly from research subsystem to farmers. The extension methodology is different from IPM-farmer field school model, but much the same information is provided in didactic form, through active participation of the farmers throughout the cotton-growing season, by deploying scouts in villages. The knowledge gain of the farmers covered under IRM programme was measured by employing before/after quasi-experimental research design. The overall knowledge gain was significant in terms of identification of insect pests and natural enemies of cotton crop, proper use of insecticides and timely sowing of the crop, but farmers did not reach the desired level of knowledge with respect to other cultural practices, which result in suppression of pest buildup. In the absence of any effective bio-agents, the level of IPM integration is limited to cultural practices, thresholds, agro ecosystem analysis and use of insecticides according to good agricultural practices.

Distribution of mealy bug, Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley in cotton with relation to weather factors in South-Western districts of Punjab.

Abstract Cyclic-AMP markedly increased the activities of peroxidase, malate dehydrogenase and succinate dehydrogenase but not glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Using inhibitors of protein and RNA synthesis, it was found that a part of enzyme activity increase caused by cyclic-AMP required fresh protein synthesis. The question of specificity of enzyme induction by cyclic-AMP has been examined.