A. Mark Pollard

A study of amber and copal samples using FT-Raman spectroscopy.

FT-Raman spectra were collected from fossil resins originating from a variety of geographical locations. The spectral profiles of most of the fossil resins could be related to modern resins containing diterpenoid components with predominantly labdane skeletons. The spectra collected from the fossil resin sample from Borneo differed from other fossil resins and was found to contain triterpenoid components. The differences in the spectral profile of fossil resins containing diterpenoid components are shown to relate to differences in level of maturation rather than geographical origin. FT-Raman spectra of fossil resins cannot be used to distinguish source although the degree of maturation can be used as an indicator to narrow the range of possible geographical origins.

Chemometric methods applied to the differentiation of fourier-transform Raman spectra of ivories

Fourier-transform (FT) Raman spectroscopy and chemometrics are used as a non-destructive means of discriminating dentine from six mammalian species. The spectra are divided into eleven wavenumber regions and the area in each determined. Normalisation was achieved by dividing through by the values for one of the regions. Principal components and discriminant analysis of these values allows for classification of the six different species. The dentine spectra can also be differentiated from those of bone and cementum. The discrimination is based upon the ratio of the organic and inorganic components within the samples.

A Review of the Applications of Immunochemistry to Archaeological Bone

Abstract Increasingly, immunochemical techniques have been applied to ancient materials in an attempt to detect proteins that may have survived the burial environment. Because of the inherent problems of immunochemical techniques and the range of techniques applied, confusion may arise amongst those who are not familiar with the science of immunochemistry. This paper presents a critical review of some of the current literature, and defines immunochemical terms and principles. Explanations of immunochemical techniques are included where necessary and the need for confirmatory studies following the application of these techniques is explained. The diagnosis of tuberculosis in archaeological bone by immunochemical means is discussed.

When science alone is not enough: Radiocarbon timescales, history, ethnography and elite settlements in southern Africa

The southern African recent past is replete with examples of elite settlements, some of which were occupied sequentially, and by different rulers. Shona, Venda and Tswana traditions identify the many dry stone walled capitals with former kings who ruled during different reigns. This historical reality is often not factored when considering the issues of political centres and urbanism in the Iron Age. The resolution of radiocarbon dating produces an aggregate time that conflates the chronology of capitals or elite centres when they may not have been contemporary – ‘the suck in and smear’ phenomenon described by Baillie (1991). This article combines historical and archaeological information to develop an alternative explanation for the existence of hundreds of elite Zimbabwe settlements, some of which were synchronous according to the radiocarbon chronology. The main indication is that rather than suffering from a glut of elites, southern African urban and political centres are associated with individual leaders of competing polities which may not have been part of unified hierarchical and sequential structures. The archaeology of the region stands to benefit from understanding the dynamics of politics, power and leadership in this way.

Zimbabwe culture before Mapungubwe: new evidence from Mapela Hill, South-Western Zimbabwe.

Across the globe, the emergence of complex societies excites intense academic debate in archaeology and allied disciplines. Not surprisingly, in southern Africa the traditional assumption that the evolution of socio-political complexity began with ideological transformations from K2 to Mapungubwe between CE1200 and 1220 is clouded in controversy. It is believed that the K2−Mapungubwe transitions crystallised class distinction and sacred leadership, thought to be the key elements of the Zimbabwe culture on Mapungubwe Hill long before they emerged anywhere else. From Mapungubwe (CE1220–1290), the Zimbabwe culture was expressed at Great Zimbabwe (CE1300–1450) and eventually Khami (CE1450–1820). However, new fieldwork at Mapela Hill, when coupled with a Bayesian chronology, offers tremendous fresh insights which refute this orthodoxy. Firstly, Mapela possesses enormous prestige stone-walled terraces whose initial construction date from the 11th century CE, almost two hundred years earlier than Mapungubwe. Secondly, the basal levels of the Mapela terraces and hilltop contain élite solid dhaka (adobe) floors associated with K2 pottery and glass beads. Thirdly, with a hilltop and flat area occupation since the 11th century CE, Mapela exhibits evidence of class distinction and sacred leadership earlier than K2 and Mapungubwe, the supposed propagators of the Zimbabwe culture. Fourthly, Mapungubwe material culture only appeared later in the Mapela sequence and therefore post-dates the earliest appearance of stone walling and dhaka floors at the site. Since stone walls, dhaka floors and class distinction are the essence of the Zimbabwe culture, their earlier appearance at Mapela suggests that Mapungubwe can no longer be regarded as the sole cradle of the Zimbabwe culture. This demands not just fresh ways of accounting for the rise of socio-political complexity in southern Africa, but also significant adjustments to existing models.

Physical Barriers, Cultural Connections: Prehistoric Metallurgy across the Alpine Region

This paper considers the early copper and copper-alloy metallurgy of the entire Alpine region. It introduces a new approach to the interpretation of chemical composition data sets, which has been applied to a comprehensive regional database for the first time. The Alpine Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age each have distinctive patterns of metal use, which can be interpreted through changes in mining, social choice, and major landscape features such as watersheds and river systems. Interestingly, the Alpine range does not act as a north-south barrier, as major differences in composition tend to appear on an east-west axis. Central among these is the prevalence of tin-bronze in the western Alps compared to the east. This ‘tin-line’ is discussed in terms of metal flow through the region and evidence for a deeply rooted geographical division that runs through much of Alpine prehistory.

Tracing the flows of copper and copper alloys in the Early Iron Age societies of the eastern Eurasian steppe

Abstract Early Iron Age pastoralists of the Eurasian steppes relied heavily on copper for weapons and ornaments, and new analysis of metal composition enables long-distance networks to be identified. Primary circulation from source areas where copper was mined can be distinguished alongside the secondary circulation of alloy types with high proportions of tin-bronze or leaded tin-bronze. The relative presence of trace elements, depleted during recycling events, provides a proxy for the flow of metal between regions. The localised seasonal movements characteristic of these mobile steppe societies underlie some of these patterns, but the evidence also indicates more extensive transfers, including the direct movement of finished objects over considerable distances.

Chemical and Isotopic Studies of Ancient Metals

Chemical treatment of metal artifacts to determine their composition was one of the first applications of science to archaeology. In this chapter, various chemical and isotopic analytical techniques are described as they relate to the study of ancient metals. In addition, the problems and pitfalls of such analyses, especially as they relate to attempts to assign “provenance” to ancient artifacts, are discussed. In general, the chemical and isotopic analysis of metal artifacts as well as metallurgical artifacts (e.g., crucibles and slags) is essential for reconstructing the ancient technological process.

TOWARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF THE INTERACTION OF HAIR WITH THE DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT

Existe un gran interes en el uso analitico del pelo humano de contextos arqueologicos en areas claves de investigacion como los analisis de ADN, elementos traza e isotopos. Otros tejidos humanos, especialmente el hueso, que han sido usados para los analisis de ADN, elementos quimicos e isotopos, han sido estudiados en relacion a su diagenesis, pero esto no se ha realizado en pelo. Es necesario considerar la compleja interaccion entre el pelo y el ambiente del entierro, creando asi una base firme para el uso de este en futuras investigaciones. A causa de que el pelo humano sobrevive bajo un rango diverso de condiciones ambientales, un estudio piloto ha investigado los procesos basicos de la degradacion del pelo usando muestras de distintas zonas climaticas y tipos diferentes de entierros. La variacion en el grado de preservacion del pelo arqueologico fue caracterizada por microscopia de luz, microscopia de scanner electronico y espectroscopia FT-Raman, relacionando el cambio morfologico de la superficie y la estructura interna con su integridad bioquimica. Los resultados demuestran una desintegracion de los bordes de celulas corticales y la ruptura de las capas cuticulares, junto a la infiltracion de materia de la matriz del entierro, que sugiere una perdida progresiva de cohesion que se debe parcialmente a actividad microbiologica. El pelo medulado demuestra ser mas susceptible a desintegracion fisica dado que provee dos rutas para el ataque microbial y ambiental. Al nivel molecular, el componente proteico pasa por alteracion, y se pierden las conexiones de S-S cystine que son responsables de la fuerza y elasticidad del pelo en individuos vivos

Revisiting lead isotope data in Shang and Western Zhou bronzes

Abstract Lead is a major component of Chinese ritual bronze vessels. Defining its sources and usage is thus highly significant to understanding the metal industries of the Chinese Bronze Age. A new, simplified method has been developed for examining data, thereby providing insight into diachronic change in the origins of lead sources used in artefacts. Application of this method to the existing corpus of lead isotope data from the Erlitou (c. 1600 BC) to the Western Zhou (c. 1045–771 BC) periods reveals changes in the isotope signal over this time frame. These changes clearly reflect shifts in the sourcing of ores and their use in metropolitan foundries. Further data are required to understand these complex developments.