Abigail Entwistle

Biodiversity Conservation: Challenges Beyond 2010

Biodiversity Convention In October 2010, the Convention on Biological Diversity will meet to assess the current condition of global biodiversity and to propose and agree on priorities for its future conservation. In this context, Rands et al. (p. 1298; see the News Focus section; see the cover) review recent patterns of biodiversity conservation, highlighting successes, as well as current and future threats. They argue that biodiversity should be treated as a public good, with responsibility for its conservation integrated across sectors of society and government, rather than be confined to the business of environmental agencies, and review the conditions under which this goal might be achieved. The continued growth of human populations and of per capita consumption have resulted in unsustainable exploitation of Earth’s biological diversity, exacerbated by climate change, ocean acidification, and other anthropogenic environmental impacts. We argue that effective conservation of biodiversity is essential for human survival and the maintenance of ecosystem processes. Despite some conservation successes (especially at local scales) and increasing public and government interest in living sustainably, biodiversity continues to decline. Moving beyond 2010, successful conservation approaches need to be reinforced and adequately financed. In addition, however, more radical changes are required that recognize biodiversity as a global public good, that integrate biodiversity conservation into policies and decision frameworks for resource production and consumption, and that focus on wider institutional and societal changes to enable more effective implementation of policy.

Timing of foraging flights of three species of bats in relation to insect activity and predation risk

The flight activity of three species of insectivorous bats and their prey was studied in north-east Scotland (57°N) during summer 1993. Aerial insects of sizes taken by bats were more abundant during the day than during the night, but the highest abundance usually occurred around dusk, partly reflecting increased flight of dipterans. In contrast, the flight activity of moths, mainly Geometridae and Pyralidae, was greatest around midnight. Two species of aerial-hawking bats, Pipistrellus pipistrellus and Myotis daubentonii, which feed primarily on small flying insects, mainly Diptera, emerged from their roosts 15-30 min after sunset, during or after the dusk peak in insect activity, and subsequently foraged as their food was declining in abundance. In contrast, the foliage gleaning bat Plecotus auritus, which feeds primarily on moths, did not emerge until about one hour after sunset, but while the activity of its main prey was increasing. The two aerial-hawking bats therefore seem to be constrained from exploiting most of the evening peak in aerial insect abundance, presumably because earlier emergence would result in higher predation risk at the higher light levels. P. auritus may have less to gain by emerging early, since it can feed on moths and non-flying prey independently of the activity of small insects at dusk. The conclusions have implications for the conservation of bats and their habitats particularly at high latitudes. Protective tree cover may allow earlier evening emergence of bats and therefore provide access to more food.

Life-history and Reproductive Strategies of Bats

Publisher Summary The timing and frequency of reproduction are major determinants of life-history strategies, which have evolved to maximize lifetime reproductive output, and thus to maximize fitness in terms of an individuals genetic contribution to the next generation. Bats have distinctive life-history strategies for mammals of their size. Most small animals have evolved a “live fast - die young” strategy, characterized by rapid reproduction and high mortality. In contrast, bats generally have a life history characterized by longevity with multiple reproductive events, low litter size and delayed onset of sexual maturity. Typically only a single young is produced, although twins are common in some species. The trend for smaller mammals to generally produce relatively larger young reaches its extreme in bats, in which the neonate may weigh up to 43% of maternal mass. Coupled with one of the lowest mass-specific fetal growth rates recorded within mammals, bats are characterized by long gestation lengths for mammals of their size. This is followed by a relatively long period of lactation and post-natal care. Longer gestation, coupled with a shorter period of lactation, may reflect lower energetic investment per day in gestation, compared to the high costs of lactation, and may represent a strategy by which energetic investment in young is optimized in relation to seasonal food abundance.

Identifying appropriate flagship species: the importance of culture and local contexts

Abstract Overthelast50yearstherehasbeenincreasing selection of flagship species. We then describe threeuse of charismatic large mammals and birds as ‘flagship examples of local flagship species and assess their usespecies’ to raise funds and promote the ethos of con- againstthesecriteria:theAsianelephant Elephas maximusservation. However, species chosen to appeal to donor for the conservation of landscapes in Aceh, Indonesia,and membership groups may not necessarily be con- the flying fox Pteropus voeltzkowi for forest protection onsidered popular among local communities. A growing Pemba Island, Tanzania, and the ceiba or kapok treerecognition of the need to engage local communities in Ceiba pentandra for the conservation of forests in Belize.conservation makes them an increasingly importantaudience for information about conservation. In such Keywords Asian elephant, Ceiba pentandra , culture,situationsanawarenessofthelocalperceptionandvalue flagship species, local communities, local participation,of diCerent species is central to choosing eCective flag- Pemba flying fox.ships. Emphasising this, we propose 10 criteria for thebut it has been questioned whether the use of suchIntroductionspecies is eCective in protecting other species or eco-The use of particular species or taxa as symbols or ‘flag- systems with which they are associated (Entwistle &ships’hasbeenadoptedbyawiderangeoforganisations Dunstone, 2000).and agencies as a means of engaging and informing One of the greatest challenges to conservation isselected audiences about conservation eCorts (Dietz developing community-led projects that convey an aware-

Outcomes, not implementation, predict conservation success

To use more effectively the limited resources available for conservation there is an urgent need to identify which conservation approaches are most likely to succeed. However, measuring conservation success is often difficult, as it is achieved outside the project time frame. Measures of implementation are often reported to donors to demonstrate achievement but it is unclear whether they really predict conservation success. We applied a conceptual framework and score-card developed by the Cambridge Conservation Forum (CCF) to a sample of 60 conservation activities to determine the predictive power of implementation measures versus measures of key outcomes (later steps in the models defined in the CCF tools). We show that assessing key outcomes is often more difficult than quantifying the degree of implementation of a project but that, while implementation is a poor predictor of success, key outcomes provide a feasible and much more reliable proxy for whether a project will deliver real conservation benefits. The CCF framework and evaluation tool provide a powerful basis for synthesizing past experience and, with wider application, will help to identify factors that affect the success of conservation activities.

A 2017 Horizon Scan of Emerging Issues for Global Conservation and Biological Diversity

We present the results of our eighth annual horizon scan of emerging issues likely to affect global biological diversity, the environment, and conservation efforts in the future. The potential effects of these novel issues might not yet be fully recognized or understood by the global conservation community, and the issues can be regarded as both opportunities and risks. A diverse international team with collective expertise in horizon scanning, science communication, and conservation research, practice, and policy reviewed 100 potential issues and identified 15 that qualified as emerging, with potential substantial global effects. These issues include new developments in energy storage and fuel production, sand extraction, potential solutions to combat coral bleaching and invasive marine species, and blockchain technology.

Alternatives for the bulb trade from Turkey: a case study of indigenous bulb propagation

In this paper we describe the outcomes of a 10-year project that provided an alternative source of material for the international trade in bulbous plants from Turkey. In the mid 1980s the export of wild bulbs was extensive and was considered to be unsustainable. Building on the opportunities for propagation of snowdrops ( Galanthus spp.), this project produced bulbs for trade, taking into account provision of local livelihoods and income generation, utilization of existing trade structures, regulation through national legislation, monitoring of overseas suppliers, and customer sensitization. Three villages and over 250 villagers were ultimately involved in bulb propagation. The project demonstrated that bulbs for an international market can be produced within a village environment to meet CITES criteria for artificial propagation. Through the application of rural development, local horticultural training, international legislation, fair-trade, and environmental consumer issues the project also illustrates the complexities of integrated approaches to trade issues. This paper presents in detail the methods used in developing this model for local plant propagation, and highlights the lessons learnt from the project.

Does the long-term success of REDD+ also depend on biodiversity?

Originally proposed in 2005 as a way to use financial incentives to tackle global climate change, Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD) has evolved to include conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks, in what is now known as REDD+. Biodiversity protection is still viewed principally as a co-benefit of the REDD+ process, with conservation of forest tree cover and carbon stocks providing the main measure of success. However, focusing solely on tree cover and carbon stocks does not always protect other species, which may be threatened by other factors, most notably hunting. We present evidence from the literature that loss of biodiversity can affect forest composition, tree survival and forest resilience and may in some cases ultimately lead to a reduction in carbon storage. We argue that REDD+ projects should specifically mitigate for threats to biodiversity if they are to maximize carbon storage potential in the long term.

Reflections on cultural values approaches to conservation: lessons from 20 years of implementation

The natural environment underpins human well-being in diverse and complex ways, providing both material and non-material benefits. Effective conservation requires context-specific understandings of human interactions with, and conceptions of, nature. A focus on how cultural values and norms frame relationships with the natural world can enhance conservation efforts, and can prevent conservation actions undermining local culture and values, providing opportunities to reinforce them instead. Conservation, including the conceptualization and management of protected areas, has the potential to support or undermine these culture–nature relationships. A cultural values approach seeks to identify, understand and integrate considerations of cultural values into the design and implementation of conservation initiatives. Such approaches can realize diverse benefits, including maintaining and enhancing local culture (as a contribution to human well-being), deepening links between communities and conservation activities; facilitating parallel conservation of nature and culture; promoting non-material as well as material natural values; and allowing specific cultural values to inform and drive conservation efforts. Cultural values approaches thus help to enhance the equity, efficacy and acceptability of conservation practice. Fauna & Flora International has implicitly and explicitly acknowledged cultural values within project design and delivery for over 20 years. In 2011 a Cultural Values Programme was established to enhance the role of cultural values of species, places and practices, and of individual and group identities, within conservation. Here we describe our evolving approach to integrating cultural values into conservation practice, provide key lessons learnt, based on specific case studies, and relate these to wider conservation policy and practice.