Adrian L. Kelly

Cocrystalization and Simultaneous Agglomeration Using Hot Melt Extrusion

ABSTRACTPurposeTo explore hot melt extrusion (HME) as a scalable, solvent-free, continuous technology to design cocrystals in agglomerated form.MethodsCocrystal agglomerates of ibuprofen and nicotinamide in 1:1 ratio were produced using HME at different barrel temperature profiles, screw speeds, and screw configurations. Product was characterized for crystallinity by XRPD and DSC, while the morphology was determined by SEM. Dissolution rate and tabletting properties were compared with ibuprofen.ResultsProcess parameters significantly affected the extent of cocrystallization which improved with temperature, applied shear and residence time. Processing above eutectic point was required for cocrystallization to occur, and it improved with mixing intensity by changing screw configuration. Product was in the form of spherical agglomerates, which showed directly compressible nature with enhanced dissolution rate compared to ibuprofen. This marks an important advantage over the conventional techniques, as it negates the need for further size modification steps.ConclusionsA single-step, scalable, solvent-free, continuous cocrystallization and agglomeration technology was developed using HME, offering flexibility for tailoring the cocrystal purity. HME being an established technology readily addresses the regulatory demand of quality by design (QbD) and process analytical technology (PAT), offering high potential for pharmaceuticals.

Monitoring ibuprofen-nicotinamide cocrystal formation during solvent free continuous cocrystallization (SFCC) using near infrared spectroscopy as a PAT tool

The purpose of this work was to explore NIR spectroscopy as a PAT tool to monitor the formation of ibuprofen and nicotinamide cocrystals during extrusion based solvent free continuous cocrystallization (SFCC). Drug and co-former were gravimetrically fed into a heated co-rotating twin screw extruder to form cocrystals. Real-time process monitoring was performed using a high temperature NIR probe in the extruder die to assess cocrystal content and subsequently compared to off-line powder X-ray diffraction measurements. The effect of processing variables, such as temperature and mixing intensity, on the extent of cocrystal formation was investigated. NIR spectroscopy was sensitive to cocrystal formation with the appearance of new peaks and peak shifts, particularly in the 4800-5200 cm(-1) wave-number region. PXRD confirmed an increased conversion of the mixture into cocrystal with increase in barrel temperature and screw mixing intensity. A decrease in screw rotation speed also provided improved cocrystal yield due to the material experiencing longer residence times within the process. A partial least squares analysis in this region of NIR spectrum correlated well with PXRD data, providing a best fit with cocrystal conversion when a limited range of process conditions were considered, for example a single set temperature. The study suggests that NIR spectroscopy could be used to monitor cocrystal purity on an industrial scale using this continuous, solvent-free process.

Melt temperature field measurement in single screw extrusion using thermocouple meshes

The development and validation of a sensor for extrusion melt temperature field measurement is described. A grid of opposing thermocouple wires was constructed and held in position by a supporting frame. Wires were joined together at crossing points to form thermocouple junctions, which were computer monitored. The mesh was used to monitor melt temperature fields during single screw extrusion at the die entrance. Design and construction of the mesh is described in addition to experimental optimization of wire diameter and junction forming. Calibration of the sensor and potential measurement errors including shear heating effects are discussed. Initial results from single screw extrusion are presented for a commercial grade of low density polyethylene using five- and seven-junction thermocouple meshes. The dependence of melt temperature profile on screw speed is illustrated. At low screw speeds melt temperature profiles were flat in shape and higher than set wall temperatures. At higher screw speeds the profiles became more pointed in shape. Use of higher resolution sensors exposed more complex temperature profiles with shoulder regions.

Characterization of thermal and rheological properties of zidovidine, lamivudine and plasticizer blends with ethyl cellulose to assess their suitability for hot melt extrusion

The influence of antiretroviral drugs and plasticizers on the rheological and thermal characteristics of ethyl cellulose formulations intended for hot melt extrusion has been investigated. Antiretroviral drugs used were zidovudine and lamivudine, whilst plasticizers included triethylcitrate (TEC) and polyethylene glycol (PEG-6000). Physical mixtures containing ethyl cellulose with varying concentrations of drugs and plasticizers were characterized using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and parallel plate oscillatory rheometry. The viscosity of physical mixtures containing both drugs was lower than observed for pure ethyl cellulose, indicating that the drugs had a plasticizing effect. This was confirmed by lowering of the glass transition temperature (Tg) of ethyl cellulose. At the highest loading of 40% by weight, lamivudine appeared to become saturated within the polymer, causing an increase in viscosity and showing evidence of recrystallization upon cooling. Both TEC and PEG-6000 were found to lower the Tg of ethyl cellulose, although PEG-6000 recrystallized upon cooling which makes it unsuitable for use in the proposed controlled release formulations. Both plasticizers were also shown to reduce the viscosity of ethyl cellulose, more significantly so for TEC. The results indicate that ethyl cellulose formulations containing up to 40% by weight of zidovudine, not more than 30% by weight of lamivudine, with 5-10% by weight of TEC as the plasticizer are suitable for processing by hot melt extrusion.

Shear and extensional rheology of hydroxypropyl cellulose melt using capillary rheometry

With increasing interest in hot melt extrusion for preparing polymer-drug systems, knowledge of the shear and extensional rheology of polymers is required for the formulation and process design. Shear and extensional rheology of three commercial grades of hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) was examined at 140, 145 and 150 degrees C using twin bore capillary rheometry at range of processing rates. The power law model fitted for shear flow behaviour up to shear strain rates of approximately 1000s(-1), above which measured shear viscosities deviated from the power law and surface instabilities were observed in the extrudate, particularly for higher molecular weight grades. Shear thinning index was found to be relatively independent of temperature and molecular weight, whilst the consistency index, indicative of zero shear viscosity increased exponentially with increase in molecular weight. Extensional viscosity of all grades studied was found to decrease with increasing temperature and increasing processing rate. Foaming of the extrudate occurred especially at low temperatures and with the high molecular weight grade. An understanding of the relationships between shear and extensional flows with temperature, processing rate and molecular weight is a useful tool for process design; optimisation and troubleshooting of Hot melt extrusion (HME) of pharmaceutical formulations.

A comparative study of the effect of spray drying and hot-melt extrusion on the properties of amorphous solid dispersions containing felodipine.

To compare the properties of solid dispersions of felodipine for oral bioavailability enhancement using two different polymers, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), by hot‐melt extrusion (HME) and spray drying.

Modelling the effects of operating conditions on motor power consumption in single screw extrusion

Extrusion is one of the most important production methods in the plastics industry and is involved in the production of a large number of plastics commodities. Being an energy intensive production method, process energy efficiency is of major concern and selection of the most energy efficient processing conditions is a key aim to reduce operating costs. Extruders consume energy through motor operation (i.e. drive to screw), the barrel heaters and also for cooling fans, cooling water pumps, gear pumps, screen pack changing devices etc. Typically the drive motor consumes more than one third of the total machine energy consumption. This study investigates the motor power consumption based on motor electrical variables (only for direct current (DC) motors) and new models are developed to predict the motor power consumption from easily measurable process settings for a particular machine geometry. Developed models are in good agreement with training and unseen data by representing the actual conditions with more than 95% accuracy. These models will help to determine the effects of individual process settings on the drive motor energy consumption and optimal motor energy efficient settings for single screw extruders.

A Review of PAT Strategies in Secondary Solid Oral Dosage Manufacturing of Small Molecules

Pharmaceutical solid oral dosage product manufacturing is a well-established, yet revolutionizing area. To this end, process analytical technology (PAT) involves interdisciplinary and multivariate (chemical, physical, microbiological, and mathematical) methods for material (e.g., materials, intermediates, products) and process (e.g., temperature, pressure, throughput, etc.) analysis. This supports rational process modeling and enhanced control strategies for improved product quality and process efficiency. Therefore, it is often difficult to orient and find the relevant, integrated aspects of the current state-of-the-art. Especially, the link between fundamental research, in terms of sensor and control system development, to the application both in laboratory and manufacturing scale, is difficult to comprehend. This review compiles a nonexhaustive overview on current approaches from the recognized academia and industrial practices of PAT, including screening, selection, and final implementations in solid oral dosage manufacturing, through a wide diversity of use cases. Finally, the authors attempt to extract a common consensus toward developing PAT application guidance for different unit operations of drug product manufacturing.

Near infra red spectroscopy as a multivariate process analytical tool for predicting pharmaceutical co-crystal concentration.

The use of near infra red spectroscopy to predict the concentration of two pharmaceutical co-crystals; 1:1 ibuprofen-nicotinamide (IBU-NIC) and 1:1 carbamazepine-nicotinamide (CBZ-NIC) has been evaluated. A partial least squares (PLS) regression model was developed for both co-crystal pairs using sets of standard samples to create calibration and validation data sets with which to build and validate the models. Parameters such as the root mean square error of calibration (RMSEC), root mean square error of prediction (RMSEP) and correlation coefficient were used to assess the accuracy and linearity of the models. Accurate PLS regression models were created for both co-crystal pairs which can be used to predict the co-crystal concentration in a powder mixture of the co-crystal and the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API). The IBU-NIC model had smaller errors than the CBZ-NIC model, possibly due to the complex CBZ-NIC spectra which could reflect the different arrangement of hydrogen bonding associated with the co-crystal compared to the IBU-NIC co-crystal. These results suggest that NIR spectroscopy can be used as a PAT tool during a variety of pharmaceutical co-crystal manufacturing methods and the presented data will facilitate future offline and in-line NIR studies involving pharmaceutical co-crystals.

Melt temperature field measurements in extrusion using thermocouple meshes

Abstract Thermocouple grids have been shown to provide a unique insight into melt temperature fields and their time dependent behaviour in extruders. These systems have been extended from single axis designs to larger arrays for more detailed temperature measurements. Nine junction (3 × 3) arrays have provided a map of the temperature profile across the melt, and the technique has been used to assess the effect of extrusion conditions such as polymer type, screw geometry and melt pressure. The data are proving invaluable for extruder screw design and to inform more accurate computer modelling of polymer melt flows. Single axis grids have also been applied to twin screw compounding extrusion, and the results showed a significant amount of shear heating with the hottest points being along the centre line of the two screws.