Akihisa Toda

Acid sphingomyelinase inhibition suppresses lipopolysaccharide-mediated release of inflammatory cytokines from macrophages and protects against disease pathology in dextran sulphate sodium-induced colitis in mice

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and inflammatory cytokines cause activation of sphingomyelinases (SMases) and subsequent hydrolysis of sphingomyelin (SM) to produce a lipid messenger ceramide. The design of SMase inhibitors may offer new therapies for the treatment of LPS‐ and cytokine‐related inflammatory bowel disease. We synthesized a series of difluoromethylene analogues of SM (SMAs). We report here the effects of the most potent SMase inhibitor, SMA‐7, on the LPS‐mediated release of tumour necrosis factor‐α, interleukin‐1β and interleukin‐6 from THP‐1 macrophages and the pathology of dextran sulphate sodium (DSS)‐induced colitis in mice. SMA‐7 suppressed the LPS‐induced cytokine release and nuclear factor‐κB activation. LPS stimulation caused a four‐fold increase in acid SMase activation, but little increase in neutral SMase activity. The presence of 10 μm SMA‐7 caused acid SMase to remain at the control levels and reduced the formation of ceramide. HT‐29 cells had significantly decreased cell viability when incubated with media from LPS‐stimulated THP‐1 macrophages. However, incubating the colon cells in media from both SMA‐7 and LPS‐treated macrophages caused little decrease in viability, suggesting that ceramide has a role in the LPS‐stimulated signalling that releases cytotoxic factors against colon cells. Oral administration of SMA‐7 to mice with 2% DSS in the drinking water, for 10 or 21 consecutive days, reduced significantly the cytokine levels in the colon and the severity of colonic injury. These findings suggest a central role for acid SMase/ceramide signalling in the pathology of DSS‐induced colitis in mice, indicating a possible preventive or therapeutic role for SMase inhibitor in inflammatory bowel disease.

Design, Synthesis, and Pharmacological Activity of Nonallergenic Pyrazolone-Type Antipyretic Analgesics

To develop novel nonallergenic pyrazolone analgesics, we synthesized a series of compounds in which position 1 of the pyrazolone ring was substituted in place of the original methyl group in order to block the formation of allergenic metabolites via N-dealkylation. These pyrazolone analogues were found to show as potent an antipyretic and analgesic effect as antipyrine (AT). In an examination of allergenicity, AT induced a typical skin reaction in guinea pigs, whereas the pyrazolone analogues were inactive. When AT was administered (po) to rats, norantipyrine (NORA) as an active metabolite was detected in the urine, whereas similar administration of the pyrazolone analogues did not afford NORA. We conclude that these novel pyrazolone analogues were nonallergenic because they were not converted to allergenic metabolites in vivo. Because these compounds retain the antipyretic and analgesic activities of AT, they are considered to be promising candidates for nonallergenic antipyretic analgesics.

Role of amygdaloid nuclei in the anxiolytic-like effect of nociceptin/orphanin FQ in rats

We investigated the mechanism underlying the anxiolytic actions of the neuropeptide nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) using the elevated plus-maze test and T-maze test. Microinfusions of N/OFQ (10 or 32pmol) into the central amygdala (ACE) increased the time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus-maze (anxiolytic-like effects), whereas microinfusions of N/OFQ (10, 32 or 100 pmol) into the basolateral amygdala (ABL) did not affect the time spent in the open arms. Moreover, microinfusions of N/OFQ (32 pmol) into the ACE impaired escape performance from the open arms of the elevated T-maze (anxiolytic-like effects), but did not change inhibitory avoidance of the open arms. A non-peptidyl N/OFQ receptor (NOP) antagonist, J-113397(1-[(3R,4R)-1-cyclooctylmethyl-3-hydroxymethyl-4-piperidyl]-3-ethyl-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one) (10 mg/kg, s.c.), blocked the anxiolytic-like effects induced by N/OFQ. These results indicate that the anxiolytic-like effects of N/OFQ might be due to impaired escape performance from the open arms and it implicates the N/OFQ system within the ACE in the mediation of panic action.

Involvement of the GABA/benzodiazepine receptor in the axiolytic-like effect of nociceptin/orphanin FQ

We investigated the mechanism underlying the anxiolytic actions of the neuropeptide nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) with an elevated plus-maze test. In mice, intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) infusions of N/OFQ (0.1 and 0.32 nmol) led to an increase in time spent in the open arms (anxiolytic-like effects). A non-peptidyl N/OFQ receptor (NOP) antagonist, J-113397(1-{(3R,4R)-1-cyclooctylmethyl-3-hydroxymethyl-4-piperidyl}-3-ethyl-1,3-dihydro-2H-benzimidazol-2-one), (1.0 and 3.2 mg/kg, s.c.) blocked the increase induced by N/OFQ. On the other hand, a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist, flumazenil, (10 mg/kg, i.p.) and a GABAA receptor antagonist, (+)-bicuculline, (5.6 mg/kg, i.p.) also inhibited the increase induced by N/OFQ. In rats, microinfusions of N/OFQ (10 and 32 pmol) into the amygdala led to an increase in time spent in the open arms. However, intracranial infusions of N/OFQ (10-100 pmol) into the dorsal hippocampus did not affect the time spent in the open arms. These findings suggest that the anxiolytic-like effects of N/OFQ may be related to the GABA/benzodiazepine system in the amygdala.

Vasohibin induces prolyl hydroxylase-mediated degradation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Vasohibin is thought to be an important negative feedback regulator of angiogenesis that is selectively induced in endothelial cells by VEGF. Here, we assessed the role of vasohibin on HIF‐1α expression under oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in HUVEC. VEGF induced significant cell growth that was associated with an increase in vasohibin expression. Following H2O2‐pretreatment, VEGF further increased cell growth but this was contrastingly associated with a decrease in vasohibin expression when compared with VEGF alone. Interestingly, vasohibin inhibited cell proliferation through degradation of HIF‐1α expression during H2O2‐pretreatment. Furthermore, vasohibin elevated the expression of prolyl hydroxylase (PHD). These results suggest that vasohibin plays crucial roles as a negative feedback regulator of angiogenesis through HIF‐1α degradation via PHD.

The stimulatory effects of caffeine with oseltamivir (Tamiflu) on light-dark behavior and open-field behavior in mice.

Abnormal behaviors and death associated with the use of oseltamivir (Tamiflu) have emerged as a major issue in influenza patients taking the drug. Here, we investigated the mechanisms underlying the effects of oseltamivir on the behavior of mice using light-dark and open-field preference tests. Oseltamivir (75 and 150 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.)) alone affected neither time spent in the open area in the light-dark preference test nor ambulation in the open-field test at 2h post-injection. However, a non-selective adenosine A(1)/A(2) receptor antagonist, caffeine (10mg/kg, i.p.) in combination with oseltamivir (150 mg/kg, i.p.) increased time spent in the open area in the light-dark preference test. This enhancement was not inhibited by a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist, flumazenil (10-20mg/kg, subcutaneously (s.c.)). Enhancement of ambulation in the open-field test was also observed when caffeine (10mg/kg, i.p.) was combined with oseltamivir (150 mg/kg, i.p.). This enhancement was inhibited by a dopamine D(2) receptor antagonist, haloperidol (0.1mg/kg, s.c.). Furthermore, an adenosine A(2) receptor antagonist, SCH58261 (3mg/kg, i.p.) in combination with oseltamivir (150 mg/kg, i.p.) increased ambulation in the open-field test, while an adenosine A(1) receptor antagonist, DPCPX (1-3mg/kg, i.p.) did not. These findings suggest that the actions of oseltamivir may involve the dopamine and adenosine systems. Our findings suggest that due to the interaction between central blockade of adenosine A(2) receptors by caffeine, and oseltamivir-induced behavioral changes, patients being treated with oseltamivir should be closely monitored.

Pyriproxyfen enhances the immunoglobulin G immune response in mice

Pyriproxyfen is a juvenile hormone mimic of vital importance for insect development with little risk to humans. This study was performed to investigate whether large doses of pyriproxyfen affect the immune response in mammals. Mice were immunized thrice with ovalbumin in 5% ethanol, with or without pyriproxyfen or alum. Large doses of pyriproxyfen (9 or 15 mM) significantly enhanced specific total IgG immune response. This enhancement was no longer present 24 hr after treatment with pyriproxyfen. These results suggest that pyriproxyfen is a safe chemical. Moreover, pyriproxyfen induced higher titers of IgG2a and enhanced tumor necrosis factor‐alpha and gamma‐interferon responses whereas alum induced IgG1 with enhanced interleukin‐4 and ‐10. These observations indicate that the mechanism of immune enhancement by pyriproxyfen may differ from that of alum.

Recombinant fusion protein of cholera toxin B subunit with YVAD secreted by Lactobacillus casei inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced caspase-1 activation and subsequent IL-1 beta secretion in Caco-2 cells

BackgroundLactobacillus species are used as bacterial vectors to deliver functional peptides to the intestine because they are delivered live to the intestine, colonize the mucosal surface, and continue to produce the desired protein. Previously, we generated a recombinant Lactobacillus casei secreting the cholera toxin B subunit (CTB), which can translocate into intestinal epithelial cells (IECs) through GM1 ganglioside. Recombinant fusion proteins of CTB with functional peptides have been used as carriers for the delivery of these peptides to IECs because of the high cell permeation capacity of recombinant CTB (rCTB). However, there have been no reports of rCTB fused with peptides expressed or secreted by Lactobacillus species. In this study, we constructed L. casei secreting a recombinant fusion protein of CTB with YVAD (rCTB–YVAD). YVAD is a tetrapeptide (tyrosine–valine–alanine–aspartic acid) that specifically inhibits caspase-1, which catalyzes the production of interleukin (IL)-1β, an inflammatory cytokine, from its inactive precursor. Here, we examined whether rCTB–YVAD secreted by L. casei binds to GM1 ganglioside and inhibits caspase-1 activation in Caco-2 cells used as a model of IECs.ResultsWe constructed the rCTB–YVAD secretion vector pSCTB–YVAD by modifying the rCTB secretion vector pSCTB. L. casei secreting rCTB–YVAD was generated by transformation with pSCTB–YVAD. Both the culture supernatant of pSCTB–YVAD-transformed L. casei and purified rCTB–YVAD bound to GM1 ganglioside, as did the culture supernatant of pSCTB-transformed L. casei and purified rCTB. Interestingly, although both purified rCTB–YVAD and rCTB translocated into Caco-2 cells, regardless of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), only purified rCTB–YVAD but not rCTB inhibited LPS-induced caspase-1 activation and subsequent IL-1β secretion in Caco-2 cells, without affecting cell viability.ConclusionsThe rCTB protein fused to a functional peptide secreted by L. casei can bind to GM1 ganglioside, like rCTB, and recombinant YVAD secreted by L. casei may exert anti-inflammatory effects in the intestine. Therefore, rCTB secreted by L. casei has potential utility as a vector for the delivery of YVAD to IECs.

Covalent binding of nitroso-sulfonamides to glutathione S-transferase in guinea pigs with delayed type hypersensitivity

Drug induced allergies are believed to be induced by conjugates consisting of biological macromolecules and active metabolites. The present study investigated whether guinea pig glutathione S-transferase (gpGST), a protein that binds with sulfanilamide (SA) and sulfamethoxazole (SMX), could be detected in the liver cytosol fraction of guinea pigs that intraperitoneally received SA or SMX, and whether gpGST is a carrier protein. We synthesized three nitroso compounds, i.e., 4-nitroso-sulfanilamide (SA-NO), 4-nitrososulfamethoxazole (SMX-NO) and fluorescent-labeled nitroso compound (DNSBA-NO), and examined binding quantities of nitroso compounds to gpGST purified from untreated female guinea pigs. Furthermore, the concentrations of IgG in serum antibody for nitroso compounds were estimated using ELISA. When guinea pigs were sensitized using the three nitroso compounds, the dose dependent skin reactions were confirmed with each compound. In addition, sensitized guinea pigs using each nitroso compound showed positive skin reactions at an elicitation test performed using gpGST alone. The results confirmed synthesis of antibody against gpGST due to hapten sensitization. Therefore, when a nitroso compound binds with gpGST in the body of guinea pigs, nitroso-gpGST acts as a neoantigen, which induces synthesis of autoantibody. Thus, gpGST appears to be one of the carrier proteins that induce sulfa drug-induced allergies. Immunization of guinea pigs with active metabolite of drugs may give information for predicting the occurrence of delayed type hypersensitivity in human.

Effect of adenosine system in the action of oseltamivir on behavior in mice

Abnormal behaviors and death associated with the use of oseltamivir (Tamiflu(®)) have emerged as a major issue in influenza patients. We have previously reported that the mechanisms underlying the effects of caffeine, a non-selective adenosine A1/A2 receptor antagonist, combined with oseltamivir. Oseltamivir is rapidly hydrolyzed to its active form (oseltamivir carboxylate, OCB). In this study, we investigated the effects of an adenosine system and OCB on the action of oseltamivir on mice behavior. Oseltamivir for 1 day (150 mg/kg, intraperitoneally (i.p.)) alone did not affect ambulation at 2 h post-injection. However, caffeine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) in combination with oseltamivir for 1 day increased ambulation. Moreover, caffeine (30 mg/kg, i.p.) in combination with oseltamivir for 3 days increased ambulation, but caffeine (10 mg/kg, i.p.) in combination with oseltamivir for 3 days did not increase. These enhancements were inhibited by an adenosine A2 receptor agonist, CGS21680 (0.2 mg/kg, subcutaneously (s.c.)). Furthermore, an adenosine A2 receptor antagonist, SCH58261 (1 and 3 mg/kg, i.p.) in combination with oseltamivir for 1 day increased ambulation. Moreover, SCH58261 (3 mg/kg, i.p.) in combination with oseltamivir for 3 days increased ambulation, but SCH58261 (1 mg/kg, i.p.) in combination with oseltamivir for 3 days did not. Conversely, in phenobarbital (PB)-treated mice, caffeine (3 mg/kg, i.p.) in combination with oseltamivir for 1 day increased ambulation. Moreover, OCB for 1 day (0.3 μg/mouse intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.)) alone increased ambulation. These findings suggest that the actions of oseltamivir may involve the adenosine systems and its metabolism. Our findings suggest an interaction between the central blockade of adenosine A2 receptors by caffeine and OCB-induced behavioral changes.