Alan Ewert

Early-Life Outdoor Experiences and an Individual's Environmental Attitudes

This study investigated the effects of early-life experiences on an individuals environmental beliefs. Data from a survey of 533 university undergraduate students from 20 areas of academic study were analyzed using sequential regression to determine the degree to which current environmental beliefs could be explained by early childhood experiences. Results showed that four of the seven independent variables (appreciative outdoor activities, consumptive outdoor activities, media exposure, and witnessing negative environmental events) explained 14% of the variance in the eco-centric/anthropocentric beliefs. Three of the independent variables (early-life participation in mechanized outdoor activities, education, and involvement with organizations) were not significant predictors of eco-centric/anthropocentric beliefs. Implications for research and practice were discussed.

Creating Outcomes through Experiential Education: The Challenge of Confounding Variables.

There is an increasing interest in the field of experiential education to move beyond simply documenting the value of experiential education programs and, instead, develop more evidence-based models for experiential education practice (cf., Gass, 2005; Henderson, 2004). Due in part to the diversity of experiential education programs, participants, goals, designs, and specific program experiences, there exists a broad constellation of variables that can impact the results of studies using an evidence-based approach. While many of these variables are accounted for through effective research designs, others are largely uncontrollable, yet remain influential. These uncontrollable variables can often distort or confound the results from research and evaluation efforts. This paper categorizes some of the most common confounding variables into three temporally based categories: Precursor, Concomitant, and Postexperience. Following this, suggestions for researchers and evaluators in addressing these variables are provided.

The influence of short-term adventure-based experiences on levels of resilience

This exploratory study investigated the impact of participation in a three-week adventure education (AE) expedition upon levels of resilience of university students. Resilience is considered to be a dynamic process of positive adaptation to significant threat or adversity and may be an important variable to study as college students often live stressful lives involving academic workloads, relationship building and self-identity that often require the development of coping skills and resilience. Little research, however, has been conducted on the ability to enhance levels of resilience through AE activities within a college or university setting. The specific research questions studied included: (1) Do resilience scores change as a result of a short-term AE experience, and (2) What specific experiences did participants report that were related to the concept of resilience? Using a mixed method, with quantitative responses from the treatment group and the comparison group, paired sample t-tests resulted in a significant increase only in the treatment group. Following semi-structured interviews with 10 graduates two to three years after the expedition, six themes emerged as important aspects in developing a sense of resilience. These themes included perseverance, self-awareness, social support, confidence, responsibility to others, and achievement.

Beyond "because it's there": motivations for pursuing adventure recreational activities.

Abstract Since 2009, participation rates for adventure pursuits such as kayaking and climbing have increased over 25% (Outdoor Industry Foundation, 2011). This study investigated the reported motivations for participation in adventure recreation over a six-year period using the independent variables of gender, experience level, and activity type. The study consisted of 801 participants engaged in four different adventure activities (rock climbing, whitewater kayaking, sea kayaking, and canoeing). Using factor analysis, three factors emerged: Social, Sensation-Seeking, and Self-Image. Of these three factors, subsequent analyses using three-way ANOVAs, revealed significant differences regarding activity type, gender, and experience level. Using discriminant analysis, the Social factor was the most successful in predicting group membership regarding gender, activity type, and level of experience.

Socially desirable responding in an environmental context: development of a domain specific scale

Numerous studies have pointed to a gap between the attitudes people express about the natural environment and their subsequent behaviors toward that environment. Variables identified within these studies include: how significant others view behaviors related to the attitudes; demographic variables such as sex, age or education; self‐perceived ability to do the attitude‐related behavior; attitude strength; and personal relevance of the attitude. This study proposes the concept of environmental desirability responding (EDR) as another factor which might contribute to the attitude‐behavior discrepancy. The development and construct validation of the Environmentally Desirable Response Scale (EDRS), which is designed to identify the existence and level of EDR, is described. The EDRS contains items designed to measure two types of socially desirable responding – ‘Self‐deception’ and ‘Image management’. A total of 1024 usable data sets were obtained from a sample of respondents in several countries (Japan, the US and Australia). Principal factors and correlation analyses revealed that the EDRS comprises three factors identified as ‘Self‐deception/Assertion of positives’, ‘Image management’ and ‘Self‐deception/Denial of negatives’. Cronbach alpha estimates of reliability for the three factors were .74, .66, and .61. Suggestions for further research regarding the scale and EDR are offered.

Gender Matters Exploring the Process of Developing Resilience Through Outdoor Adventure

This two-phase study investigates the process of developing resilience through participation in outdoor adventure programming. In this study, resilience is conceptualized as experiencing growth through a disruptive event. In the first phase, a pre–post survey measure was used to assess resilience in university students who were enrolled in a semester-long adventure education program, a three-credit leisure class, or a one-credit leadership class. The second phase involved semi-structured interviews to better understand the results from Phase 1, which indicated an interaction effect between gender and time. Of particular interest was the finding that males decreased in reported levels of resilience, while females experienced increased levels. The salience of gender roles to adventure education programming is considered as an explanation for these results.

Multiple Methods for Identifying Outcomes of a High Challenge Adventure Activity

The purpose of this study was to provide insight into what occurs in moments of high challenge within participants during an outdoor adventure education (OAE) program. Given the inherent risk and remote locations often associated with OAE programs, it has remained challenging to measure selected psychological constructs while the program is taking place. This study utilized qualitative methods including in situ data collection techniques and quantitative inquiry methods to identify and determine what is happening to participants before, during, and after a high challenge activity—rappelling. The results of this study identified five salient themes that emerged as important constructs for OAE participants and are useful to consider as researchers and OAE practitioners design and implement high challenge activities. Further analysis and discussion about the importance of these themes are discussed at length.

The impact of short-term adventure-based outdoor programs on college students’ stress reduction

ABSTRACT This study examines the effect of short-term adventure-based outdoor programs (AOP) on reducing college students’ stress levels. The effects of sex and different outdoor adventure activities in stress reduction are also evaluated. Thirty-three college students participated in selected short-term backpacking, canoeing, and kayaking programs. Students salivary samples were collected to evaluate physiological stress response (as measured by levels of cortisol) and their psychological stress levels were collected through a modified 12-item questionnaire. Stress responses were measured at three different time points, including the second weekly meeting in the classroom, before the field trip, and at the conclusion of the field trip. Findings suggest that short-term AOP affords opportunities for college students to be away from daily challenges, and in turn reduce college students’ psychological stress levels and provide a temporary relief of physiological stress levels. No significant differences in college students’ stress levels were found between sex and different outdoor adventure activities.

Understanding the motivations of serious leisure participation: a self-determination approach

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between serious leisure (SL) and quality of motivation, in line with self-determination theory (SDT). The SL perspective was used to describe rock climbers’ commitment, identity development, and rewards gained from their serious pursuits. SDT was used to examine how motivations with various level of self-determination facilitated or hindered SL. Identified motivation was positively associated with commitment, identity development, and personal rewards. Intrinsic motivation was positively associated with personal and social rewards. Introjected motivation had mixed relations to SL. This study strengthened the motivational aspects of the SL perspective, tested the latent constructs of SL, and supported the findings of recent SL studies incorporating SDT.