Jim Sibthorp

Early-Life Outdoor Experiences and an Individual's Environmental Attitudes

This study investigated the effects of early-life experiences on an individuals environmental beliefs. Data from a survey of 533 university undergraduate students from 20 areas of academic study were analyzed using sequential regression to determine the degree to which current environmental beliefs could be explained by early childhood experiences. Results showed that four of the seven independent variables (appreciative outdoor activities, consumptive outdoor activities, media exposure, and witnessing negative environmental events) explained 14% of the variance in the eco-centric/anthropocentric beliefs. Three of the independent variables (early-life participation in mechanized outdoor activities, education, and involvement with organizations) were not significant predictors of eco-centric/anthropocentric beliefs. Implications for research and practice were discussed.

An Empirical Look at Walsh and Golins' Adventure Education Process Model: Relationships between Antecedent Factors, Perceptions of Characteristics of an Adventure Education Experience, and Changes in Self-Efficacy.

This study looks at essential aspects of the Walsh and Golins (1976)model of the Outward Bound process in the context of current adventure education literature and theory and seeks to test the relationships between participant antecedent factors, perceptions of characteristics of an adventure experience, and self-efficacy Findings supported the importance of participant antecedent factors in the adventure experience. Participant motives and expectations were most strongly related to perceptions of characteristics of the adventure experience (personal empowerment and learning relevance). Perceptions of personal empowerment and learning relevance were found to be associated with changes in reported self-efficacy. The anticipated direct link between the antecedent factors and the changes in self-efficacy was not supported by this study. Additionally, a decrease in socially desirable responses was reported at course completion. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Creating Outcomes through Experiential Education: The Challenge of Confounding Variables.

There is an increasing interest in the field of experiential education to move beyond simply documenting the value of experiential education programs and, instead, develop more evidence-based models for experiential education practice (cf., Gass, 2005; Henderson, 2004). Due in part to the diversity of experiential education programs, participants, goals, designs, and specific program experiences, there exists a broad constellation of variables that can impact the results of studies using an evidence-based approach. While many of these variables are accounted for through effective research designs, others are largely uncontrollable, yet remain influential. These uncontrollable variables can often distort or confound the results from research and evaluation efforts. This paper categorizes some of the most common confounding variables into three temporally based categories: Precursor, Concomitant, and Postexperience. Following this, suggestions for researchers and evaluators in addressing these variables are provided.

Student Learning in Outdoor Education: A Case Study from the National Outdoor Leadership School

While much attention has been paid to what students learn in outdoor education settings, little has been paid to the process through which that learning occurs. The purpose of this study was to identify the mechanisms through which students report learning one of six targeted objectives on courses offered by the National Outdoor Leadership School. Results suggested five broad domains through which learning occurs: structure-oriented mechanisms; instructor-oriented mechanisms; student-oriented mechanisms; student- and instructor-oriented mechanisms; and mechanisms that are a result of environmental qualities. The relative importance of each of these domains is discussed, as are recommendations for practice.

Developing Life Effectiveness through Adventure Education: The Roles of Participant Expectations, Perceptions of Empowerment, and Learning Relevance

The processes behind many adventure education programs remain poorly documented, and how development is fostered through adventure is not well understood. While a number of theory-based articles do exist, little empirical research has been available to influence experiential education program design. This study explores the roles that participant pre-program expectations, on-program perceptions of empowerment, and learning relevance play in the development of life effectiveness through an adventure education program. The path analyses supported the hypothesized role of perceived personal empowerment as a mediator between participant expectations and the development of life effectiveness. The hypothesized mediating role of perceived learning relevance was not supported. Implications for program design and future research on the adventure education process are discussed.

Learning transferable skills through adventure education: The role of an authentic process

Abstract The purpose of this study is threefold: (a) to explore what 18 adolescents learned while participating in a three week long adventure program, (b) to examine how they learned while on the program, and (c) to determine what program outcomes they considered most applicable to their home environments, or which learning is “transferable”. To address these purposes, 18 participants 13–18 years old on 14 different three-week long sail and dive training courses were interviewed. The study found that participants learned both hard skills (e.g., sailing and diving) and life skills. They learned these skills experientially, by observing and receiving feedback from others, by exposure to new and different persons, and through the authenticity of needing to learn these skills through the course design. Participants reported that the life skills were most likely to be applicable after course completion in the home environment. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Mechanisms of Learning Transfer in Adventure Education: Qualitative Results from the NOLS Transfer Survey:

Transfer of learning from adventure programs remains of critical interest to adventure education professionals. Although some research has investigated what transfers, notably less has focused on mechanisms that might influence transfer. This paper explores the mechanisms of transfer reported by a stratified random sample of National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) alumni. The 538 participants reported that instructors (through a variety of means), inherent qualities of the adventure courses (e.g., group dynamics, natural setting), and curriculum (e.g., leadership progression) were critical mechanisms of transfer. Some of the literature-based mechanisms were not evident in the data; however, some (e.g., active learning, feedback) are inherent in adventure education. Thus, adventure education programs may inherently foster learning transfer through a variety of both data- and literature-based means. Ultimately, learning transfer is complex and highly individual; astute adventure educators should intentionally use a wide spectrum of techniques and tools, ranging from group dynamics to curriculum, when considering transfer in adventure education.

Hierarchical linear modeling in park, recreation, and tourism research.

Myriad research contexts in parks, recreation, and tourism are characterized by the existence of effects “nested” within other effects, but only very rarely are these effects acknowledged and incorporated into designs. Failure to account for these effects not only prevents researchers from assessing effects of nested variables, but it also creates a violation of the assumption of independence of observations that is fundamental to most such commonly used sampling distributions as t and F. Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) is a statistical technique that provides a solution to this problem. HLM allows researchers to account for nested effects in studies that use unbalanced designs (unequal sample sizes per group), studies that use repeated measures, or other designs that create linear dependency among observations. In this paper, we review the nested effects problem and illustrate applications of HLM using a set of experience sampling data and a set of evaluation data in which intact groups are nested within a treatment variable.

Adventure‐based programming: Exemplary youth development practice

Despite functioning on the periphery of academic scholarship, theory development, and rigorous science, the better adventure-based programs are functioning at the forefront of professional youth practices. This article links the core elements and processes of adventure programs to the literature on positive youth development and quality youth programming. Contemporary work on developmental systems theory, developmental cascades, and initiative are well aligned with the historical, philosophical, and pro-grammatic roots of adventure education. In addition, adventure programs afford some powerful experiences by way of distinct features such as isolation, dosage, different physical environments, holistic approaches, social experiences, and program novelty. This combination of features often provides a microcosm for youth to live, learn, experiment, and grow. Despite the strengths in prototypical adventure programs, they remain less accessible and are not easily delivered to many youth. Although there are clearly differences in adventure program and other youth activities, many of the qualities of adventure programs can be included in a broader and more accessible spectrum of youth opportunities. This article thus explains the congruency between the literature on positive youth development and adventure programs and generalizes current tenets of adventure programs to the broader context of youth practice. It is time to recognize the important role that adventure programs play for many youth and fully embrace what these diverse and successful programs can teach the general field of positive youth development.

The Social System in Outdoor Adventure Education Programs

Many components of the social system interact with one another to produce group-level behavior that determines the functionality of the small group in outdoor adventure education (OAE). This article synthesizes the contemporary literature and theory regarding eight aspects of the OAE social system: (a) Macro Contextual Factors, (b) Student Factors, (c) Instructor Factors, (d) Goals, (e) Group Factors, (f) Group Outcomes, (g) Group Dependent Individual Outcomes, and (h) Time. Directions for future research and implications for OAE are discussed.